デブサミ2018 Apache Kafkaの話

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Apache KafkaʹΑΔ εέʔϥϒϧ ΞϓϦέʔγϣϯ։ൃ yuuki takezawa   Developers Summit 2018 - 2/16

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Agenda • What Apache Kafka • Kafka Connect / Kafka Streams • Kappa Architecture • ΞϓϦέʔγϣϯͰ׆༻

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Scalability • ن໛ಁաੑ  ෛՙͷߴ௿ʹ߹ΘͤͯϦιʔεɾϓʔϧΛ  ֦େɾॖখͰ͖Δ͜ͱ • Ґஔಁաੑ  Ϣʔβʔ΍Ϧιʔε͕ͲΕ͚ͩ཭Ε͍ͯΔ͔ҙࣝͤͣʹɺ มΘΒͳ͍࢖͍উखͰγεςϜ͕ར༻Ͱ͖Δ͜ͱ • ҟछಁաੑ  γεςϜΛߏ੒͢Δػث΍ιϑτ΢ΣΞ͕ҟͳ͍ͬͯΔ͜ ͱΛҙࣝͤͣʹ؅ཧɾར༻Ͱ͖Δ͜ͱ

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What is Apache Kafka?

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Message Broker

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Apache Kafka • ZookeeperΛར༻ͨ͠ΫϥελϦϯάʹΑΔߴՄ༻ੑ • ϝοηʔδͷӬଓԽɺϨϓϦέʔγϣϯɺ࠶औಘՄ • ϏοάσʔλରԠ • ϑΝΠϧγεςϜར༻Ͱɺ  γʔέϯγϟϧΞΫηεʹΑΔߴ଎Խ • ετϦʔϜରԠͷϝοηʔδϯάϛυϧ΢ΣΞ • Kafka ConnectʹΑΔपลγεςϜͱͷߴ͍਌࿨ੑ  (Amazon kinesisͱ΄΅ಉ͡)

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Apache Kafka + ZooKeeper Architecture

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Apache Kafka֓ཁ • Producer   ϝοηʔδ഑৴Λߦ͏  ֤ݴޠͷΫϥΠΞϯτϥΠϒϥϦΛར༻ • Consumer   ϝοηʔδߪಡΛߦ͏  ফඅ͞Εͨϝοηʔδ͸ഁغ͞Εͣɺ  Ұఆظؒอ؅͞ΕΔ • Broker  KafkaຊମͰɺProducerɺConsumerؒͷΩϡʔ

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Apache Kafka֓ཁ • Topic   Producer͔Βͷϝοηʔδ͸͜ͷTopicʹ֨ೲ͞ΕΔ  ϝοηʔδ͸Ұҙʹ؅ཧɺFIFO(ޙड़partition)Ͱॲཧ • Partition  ෛՙ෼ࢄ༻్ʹར༻  ෳ਺ͷConsumer͕ͦΕͧΕͷPartitionΛࢀর͠ɺ  ͦΕͧΕ͕ॲཧΛߦ͏  ॲཧϑϩʔͷσβΠϯʹΑͬͯଟ༷ͳར༻ํ๏

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Example Partition

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Producer αϯϓϧ https://github.com/istyle-inc/go- example-developers-summit

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import ( "github.com/confluentinc/confluent-kafka-go/kafka" ) func (kc *KafkaClient) PrepareProducer() { p, err := kafka.NewProducer(&kafka.ConfigMap{ "bootstrap.servers": *kc.BootstrapServers, "broker.address.family": "v4", "queue.buffering.max.messages": "1000", "client.id": "testingClient", }) // লུ } ઀ଓ͢Δ,BGLBΛࢦఆ

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Kafka Connect • Kafka Connectͱ͸ɺ  पลγεςϜ͔ΒͷσʔλΛऔΓࠐΈ(Source)ɺ  σʔλૹ৴(Sink)ͷೋछྨΛαϙʔτ͢Δػೳ • Amazon SQS΍MongoDBͷσʔλΛKafkaͰऔࠐΉɺ  ϝοηʔδΛͦͷ··Elasticsearch΍RDBMSʹ֨ೲɺ  ͕ߦ͑Δ • Connect͸ࣗ༝ʹ֦ுͯ͠ಠࣗConnectΛ࣮૷Մೳ  (java, Scala)

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Example Kafka Connect &WFOU4PVSDJOH 4UBUF4PVSDJOH ଞΞϓϦέʔγϣϯ  $POTVNFS ૹ৴಺༰Λͦͷ··  &MBTUJDTFBSDI΁

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Kafka Connect Sink - Elasticsearch

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bootstrap.servers=192.168.10.10:9092 key.converter=org.apache.kafka.connect.json.JsonConverter value.converter=org.apache.kafka.connect.json.JsonConverter key.converter.schemas.enable=false value.converter.schemas.enable=false internal.key.converter=org.apache.kafka.connect.json.JsonConverter internal.value.converter=org.apache.kafka.connect.json.JsonConverter internal.key.converter.schemas.enable=false internal.value.converter.schemas.enable=false offset.storage.file.filename=/tmp/connect.offsets offset.flush.interval.ms=10000 rest.port=8093 plugin.path=/usr/share/java/

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name=elasticsearch-sink connector.class=io.conﬂuent.connect.elasticsearch.ElasticsearchSinkConnector tasks.max=1 topics=sample.append_employees key.ignore=true connection.url=http://localhost:9200 schema.ignore=true type.name=kafka-connect FMBTUJDTFBSDIDPOOFDU ର৅ͷUPQJDΛબ୒

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$ conﬂuent load elasticsearch-sink -d \ /etc/kafka-connect-elasticsearch/sample-es.properties $ connect-standalone \ -daemon /etc/schema-registry/elasticsearch-connect.properties \ /etc/kafka-connect-elasticsearch/sample-es.properties DPOOFDUΛొ࿥ సૹ͕։࢝͞Ε·͢

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Command Query Responsibility Segregation

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Kafka Streams • KafkaͰετϦʔϜॲཧΛ࣮૷͢Δػೳ • ͋ΔτϐοΫʹσʔλ͕֨ೲ͞ΕΔ࣌ʹ  Կ͔ॲཧΛ࣮ߦ͠ଞͷτϐοΫʹ֨ೲ͢Δ • Consumerͳ͠Ͱ্هͷॲཧΛ࣮ݱ • ௚ۙ30෼ʹ͓͚ΔPVϥϯΩϯάɺ  ϝοηʔδ಺ͷจࣈྻมߋɺ௥ՃͳͲ

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What is Stream?

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ετϦʔϜॲཧ • େྔͷσʔλΛϦΞϧλΠϜͰॲཧ͢Δͷ͕ɺ  ετϦʔϜσʔλॲཧͷ໨త • ऴΘΓ͕ͳ͘ɺແݶʹ΍ͬͯ͘Δ΋ͷ΁ͷΞϓϩʔν • ϝϞϦ಺Ͱॲཧ͞Εɺͦͷޙഁغ͞ΕΔ • ؂ࢹܥͷॲཧΑ͘ར༻͞Ε͍ͯΔ΋ͷ • ηϯαʔΛར༻ͨ͠ΞϓϦέʔγϣϯͳͲ

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Kafka Streams • KStream / KTable • KStream͸ετϦʔϜͰྲྀΕͯ͘Δσʔλ͕KVͰͦͷ ··ྲྀΕͯ͘Δ • KStream͸γϯϓϧʹﬁlterॲཧ΍ɺஔ͖׵͑༻్  ϩά΍ɺπΠʔτɺλΠϜϥΠϯతͳ΋ͷʹ

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؆୯ͳαϯϓϧ https://github.com/istyle-inc/ developers-summit-kafka-streams

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def main(args: Array[String]) { println("Kafka Streams Sample.") val config: Properties = { val prop = new Properties() prop.load(new java.io.FileInputStream(args(0).toString)) prop.put(StreamsConfig.APPLICATION_ID_CONFIG, prop.getProperty("sample.app_id")) prop.put(StreamsConfig.BOOTSTRAP_SERVERS_CONFIG, prop.getProperty("sample.bootstrap.servers")) prop.put(StreamsConfig.DEFAULT_KEY_SERDE_CLASS_CONFIG, Serdes.String().getClass) prop.put(StreamsConfig.DEFAULT_VALUE_SERDE_CLASS_CONFIG, Serdes.String().getClass) // exactly once prop.put(StreamsConfig.PROCESSING_GUARANTEE_CONFIG, StreamsConfig.EXACTLY_ONCE) prop } } LBGLB4USFBNͰ࣮ߦ͞ΕΔΔEFG αʔϏεશମͰಉ͡BQQ@JE͸࢖Θͳ͍ ઀ଓ͢ΔTFSWFSΛࢦఆ

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val ft: String = config.getProperty("sample.stream.topic") val tt: String = config.getProperty("sample.streamed.topic") println("stream topic: from " + ft) println("to " + tt) val stringSerde: Serde[String] = Serdes.String() val builder: StreamsBuilder = new StreamsBuilder val rawStream: KStream[String, String] = builder.stream(ft) val mapStream: KStream[String, String] = rawStream.mapValues(new ValueMapper[String, String] { override def apply(value: String): String = new ElementAppender(value).append() }) mapStream.to(stringSerde, stringSerde, tt) val streams: KafkaStreams = new KafkaStreams(builder.build(), config) streams.start() 4USFBNॲཧର৅UPQJD 4USFBNॲཧޙʹ֨ೲ͢ΔUPQD ,4USFBNͰॲཧ σʔλͷஔ͖׵͑ ॲཧޙʹUPQJD֨ೲΛߦ͏ 4USFBNॲཧ໋ྩܧଓతʹ࣮ߦ͞ΕΔ

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ϝοηʔδͷܽଛ ૹ৴ࣦഊ BDLड৴ࣦഊ #SPLFSμ΢ϯ ϝοηʔδड৴ࣦഊ

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Exactly Once • 0.11͔Β௥Ճ • Producer, BrokerؒͷτϥϯβΫγϣϯ  Broker, ConsumerؒͷτϥϯβΫγϣϯ • ਖ਼֬ʹҰ౓͚ͩૹ৴

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ϝοηʔδ఻ୡͷอূ • At least once semantics  ॏෳΛڐՄ • At most once semantics  ܽଛΛڐՄ • Exactly once semantics  ॏෳɺ͓ΑͼܽଛΛڐՄ͠ͳ͍    "Exactly-once Semantics are Possible: Here’s How Kafka Does it". Conﬂuent APACHE KAFKA.   https://www.conﬂuent.io/blog/exactly-once-semantics-are-possible-heres-how-apache-kafka-does-it/ ࢀর

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Apache KafkaͰ՝୊ղܾ • ྲྀΕͯ͘Δσʔλʹ߹Θͤͯ  ։ൃऀ͕෼ࢄํ๏Λઃܭ͢Δ͜ͱ͕Ͱ͖Δ • ϩάͷτϥϯβΫγϣϯ  ESɾCQRSͰΞϓϦέʔγϣϯʹऔΓࠐΉ͜ͱ͕Մೳ • Kafka ConnectɺKafka Streams͕ڧྗ  • HadoopΤίγεςϜͰ਌࿨ੑ

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ڊେԽ͢ΔΞϓϦέʔγϣϯʹ

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γϯϓϧͳΞϓϦέʔγϣϯߏ੒

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γϯϓϧͳΞϓϦέʔγϣϯߏ੒

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ڊେͳΞϓϦέʔγϣϯ΁

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ෳࡶʹͳΔΞϓϦέʔγϣϯ • σʔλಉظͷෳࡶԽ  ϦΞϧλΠϜͰσʔλ͕ཉ͍͠  ΠϯσοΫεߋ৽͕ఆظ࣮ߦ • ͦͷଞ  Ͳ͔͜ͷαʔϏε͕मਖ਼͞ΕͨΒো֐ʹ • ෳࡶԽ͢Δ࣮૷ίʔυ

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എܠ • େ͖͘ෳࡶԽ͢ΔΞϓϦέʔγϣϯͷ੹຿  -> ݶΒΕͨػೳͷΈఏڙ͢Δ   -> ϚΠΫϩαʔϏεΑΓʹ͢Δඞཁ͕͋ͬͨ • ೗Կʹεέʔϧ͍͔ͤͯ͘͞  -> ͍͍ϋʔυ΢ΣΞͰؤுΔʹ΋ݶք͕͋Δ • ߴՄ༻ɾো֐଱ੑ  -> σʔλଛࣦ୲อɺϦτϥΠͳͲ͕Մೳͳ΋ͷ͕ʂ

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௨஌ػೳʹಋೖ • ͳʹͳʹ͞Μ͕Ͳ͜ͰԿ͠·ͨ͠  ԿϙΠϯτ֫ಘ͠·ͨ͠ʂ etc • αʔϏεԣஅͰ࢖ΘΕΔ • ਺100ສ෼ͷEvent (ଟ͍ͱ͖) • σʔλՃ޻ʹRDBMSͱ૊Έ߹ΘͤΔඞཁ͕͋Γɺ  αʔϏεʹΑͬͯ͸ෳࡶʹͳΔ΋ͷ΋͋ΔͨΊɺ  Consumerͷෛՙ෼ࢄΛ༰қʹ͍ͨ͠ • ϝοηʔδଛࣦΛͳΔ΂͘๷͍͗ͨ

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௨஌ػೳ 1SPEVDFSந৅Խ ϥΠϒϥϦఏڙ ௨஌ొ࿥"1*ఏڙ UPQJDʹ߹Θͤͯ 1BSUJUJPO/ ଞͷαʔϏεͰSBCCJUNRΛར༻ ͍ͯ͠ΔͨΊɺSBCCJUNR΁ ,BGLB$POOFDUʹมߋ༧ఆ $BTTBOESBΫϥελ

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ಋೖޙ • Ұ೥ؒͷ͏ͪ໨ཱͬͨো֐͸ͳ͠  • ϝοηʔδ֬ೝ͕༰қͰɺૄ௨֬ೝͳͲॏๅ  • KafkaɺCassandraͷ૊Έ߹ΘͤͰࡹ͚͗ͯ͢͠·͍ɺ  ͍ͭ΋εΧεΧ  • rabbitmqͷόοΫΞοϓͱͯ͠΋Քಇ  *ࣾ಺Ͱrabbitmqར༻αʔϏεͷํ͕ଟ͍ͨΊ

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Kafka Connect Source - Rabbitmq

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name=named-kafka-connect-rabbitmq tasks.max=1 connector.class=com.github.jcustenborder.kafka.connect.rabbitmq.RabbitMQSour ceConnector rabbitmq.prefetch.count=500 rabbitmq.automatic.recovery.enabled=true rabbitmq.network.recovery.interval.ms=10000 rabbitmq.topology.recovery.enabled=true rabbitmq.queue=action_api.create_object kafka.topic=rabbitmq.source_topic rabbitmq.host=rabbitmqhost.local rabbitmq.password=password rabbitmq.username=username

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$ conﬂuent load named-kafka-connect-rabbitmq -d \ /etc/kafka-connect-rabbitmq/rabbitmq-source-connect.properties $ connect-standalone \ -daemon /etc/schema-registry/connect-json-standalone.properties \ /etc/kafka-connect-rabbitmq/rabbitmq-source-connect.properties

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RabbitMQ -> Kafka ,BGLB$POOFDUͰ ٵ্͍͛ ,BGLB4USFBNTͰ UPQJDৼΓ෼͚ LBGLBDPOOFDUIEGTͰ IEGTʹग़ྗ

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Lambda Architecture

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BigDataʹ൐͏ΞϓϦέʔγϣϯͷ՝୊ • ͦΕͧΕͷΞϓϦέʔγϣϯͰ࣮ߦ͍ͯͨ͠όονॲ ཧ͕ऴΘΒͳ͍ • Ϩίʔυ਺΋୹͍ظؒͰ਺ԯͱ๲େʹͳΓɺ  σʔλϕʔεͷindexΑΓ΋I/O͕ݫ͍͠ • ϨϓϦέʔγϣϯ஗Ԇ୲อ͕೉͍͠ • ਺ઍສϢʔβʔͷϦΞϧλΠϜͷ෼ੳΛ͢Δʹ͸ݫ͍͠ • ෼ࢄͨ͠σʔλϕʔεʹͲ͏ཱͪ޲͔͏͔

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BigData΁ͷΞϓϩʔν • σʔλͦͷ΋ͷͷू໿ • લ೔·Ͱʹूܭ͓͚ͯ͠͹ྑ͍σʔλΛ͋Β͔͡Ί༻ ҙ͢Δ • ϦΞϧλΠϜʹೖྗ͞ΕΔσʔλʹରͯ͠ͷ  ߴ଎ͳMessageॲཧͱɺ෼ࢄՄೳͳσʔλετϨʔδ

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Lambda Architecture • όον૚ɺαʔϏε૚ɺεϐʔυ૚Ͱߏ੒ • όον૚͸ɺେ͖ͳσʔλͷूܭ΍ɺେྔσʔλͷ෼ੳͳ ͲΛ୲౰͢Δ -> Hadoop(MapReduce), Spark • αʔϏε૚͸όον૚ͷू໿݁ՌΛఏڙ͢Δ  Hive, HBase, ElephantDB, Splout SQL, pipelineDB… • εϐʔυ૚͸ϦΞϧλΠϜॲཧͷ݁ՌΛఏڙ͢Δ૚  Spark, Storm, Kafka, Cassandra etc.. • αʔϏε૚ͱεϐʔυ૚ͷ྆ํͷ஋ΛϚʔδͯ͠ฦ٫  αʔϏεʹΑͬͯ͸೉қ౓͕ߴ͍ɾɾʂ

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Lambda Architecture

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Kappa Architecture

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KappaΞʔΩςΫνϟ

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KappaΞʔΩςΫνϟ

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def main(args: Array[String]) { val kafkaParams = Map[String, Object]( "bootstrap.servers" -> "localhost:9092", "key.deserializer" -> classOf[StringDeserializer], "value.deserializer" -> classOf[StringDeserializer], "group.id" -> "kafka_builderscon_stream", "auto.offset.reset" -> "latest", "enable.auto.commit" -> (false: java.lang.Boolean) ) // val spark = SparkSession .builder .master("local[*]") .appName("buildersconSmaple") .conﬁg("spark.cassandra.connection.host", "192.168.10.10") .getOrCreate() val streamingContext = new StreamingContext(spark.sparkContext, Seconds(5)) LBGLB4USFBNͰ࣮ߦ͞ΕΔΔEFG ,BGLB઀ଓ৘ใ ࠷৽ͷྲྀΕͯདྷͨσʔλΛ࢖ͬͯৗʹॲཧ 4QBSL"QQ໊ 4USFBNJOHॲཧ݁ՌΛ$BTTBOESBʹ ඵ͓͖ʹશσʔλΛॻ͖ࠐΉ

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streamingContext.checkpoint("/tmp/") val topics = Array("message-topic") val stream = KafkaUtils.createDirectStream[String, String]( streamingContext, PreferConsistent, Subscribe[String, String](topics, kafkaParams) ) val pairs = stream.map(record => (record.value, 1)) val count = pairs.updateStateByKey(updateFunc) ॲཧσʔλͷܦաΛॻ͖ࠐΉ ࢮΜͰ΋͔͜͜Β΍Γ௚͢ ,BGLB5PQJDͷσʔλΛ 4QBSLͷ4USFBNʹྲྀ͠ࠐΉ

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count.foreachRDD((rdd, time) => { val count = rdd.count() if (count > 0) { rdd.map(record => ("spark", streamMessageParse(record._1.toString).message, record._2)) .saveToCassandra("builderscon", "counter", SomeColumns("stream", "message", "counter")) } }) count.print() streamingContext.start() streamingContext.awaitTermination() } ྲྀΕͯ͘Δ3%%ͷॲཧ։࢝ ूܭ݁ՌΛ$BTTBOESBͷΧϥϜʹNBQ ͯ͠ॻ͖ࠐΉ

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for Application

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ϝοηʔδͷόϦσʔγϣϯ͸Ͳ͜Ͱʁ • ProducerͰόϦσʔγϣϯ  -> ࠷௿ݶͷܕकΔ  -> ଞαʔϏεͷ஌͕ࣝඞཁʹͳΔ৔߹͸࣮૷͠ͳ͍  • ConsumerͰόϦσʔγϣϯ  ड৴ͨ͠ϝοηʔδΛௐ΂ɺ  ਖ਼͘͠ͳ͍΋ͷΛεΩοϓ

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ϝοηʔδͷόϦσʔγϣϯ͸Ͳ͜Ͱʁ • Kafka Streamͱ͍͏બ୒ࢶ  java·ͨ͸ScalaͰ࣮૷Մೳ  -> ࣮૷ࣗମ͸ͦΜͳʹ೉͘͠ͳ͍  • αʔϏεͷ஌ࣝ͸ઐ༻ͷStreamͰߦ͏  -> ϚΠΫϩαʔϏεͰ͋Ε͹

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PipelineDBͱ͍͏બ୒ࢶ • ྲྀΕͯ͘Δϝοηʔδʹରͯ͠ɺ  ϦΞϧλΠϜʹɺSQL Likeʹऔಘ͍ͨ͠  • ͔ͭετϨʔδΛѹഭͤͨ͘͞ͳ͍  • PostgreSQL Compatible  • PDOͰ઀ଓՄೳʂ

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PipelineDBͱ͍͏બ୒ࢶ CREATE EXTENSION pipeline_kafka; SELECT pipeline_kafka.add_broker(‘localhost:9092'); CREATE STREAM logs_stream (payload json); CREATE CONTINUOUS VIEW message_count AS SELECT COUNT(*) FROM logs_stream;

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KSQL • Kafkaʹอ؅͞Ε͍ͯΔϝοηʔδʹ  SQLΠϯλʔϑΣʔεͰΞΫηε͢Δ΋ͷ • ݱࡏDeveloper Preview • RESTͰΞΫηε͢Δ͜ͱ͕Ͱ͖·͢

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ҰาਐΜͩ෼ࢄΞϓϦέʔγϣϯ • PrestoΛར༻͠ɺ  RDBMS΍Redisͱ૊Έ߹Θͤͨσʔλऔಘ͕Մೳ  RedisͷϥϯΩϯάͱRDBMSͷਖ਼نԽ͞Εͨσʔλɺ  KafkaΛ࢖ͬͨ௚ۙͷϩάσʔλֻ͚߹Θͤ

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for Prestodb • ܕఆٛ etc/kafka/table໊.json • ઀ଓ৘ใ “etc/catalog/kafka_tests.properties” • prestoͷΧλϩάʹ઀ଓ৘ใΛهड़ • topic໊͸ hoge.fuga ܗࣜͱ͢Δ

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{ "tableName": “action", "schemaName": "analyze", "topicName": "analyze.action", "message": { "dataFormat": "json", "ﬁelds": [ { "name": "uuid", "mapping": "uuid", "type": "VARCHAR" }, { "name": "uri", "mapping": "uri", "type": "VARCHAR" }, { "name": "name", "mapping": "name", "type": "VARCHAR" } ] } LBGLBͷUPQJD৘ใΛهࡌ ΧϥϜΛఆٛϓϦϛςΟϒͳܕʹม׵

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connector.name=kafka kafka.nodes=127.0.0.1:9092 kafka.table-names=analyze.action kafka.hide-internal-columns=false DPOODUPS໊͸LBGLB LBGLBͷΫϥελʔΛࢦఆ LBGLBͷUPQJDΛࢦఆ LBGLBͷγεςϜΧϥϜ༗ແ

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SELECT redttt._key, redttt._value, test_id, test_name, created_at, uri, uuid FROM my_tests.testing.tests AS myttt INNER JOIN red_tests.test.string AS redttt ON redttt._key = myttt.test_name INNER JOIN kafka_tests.analyze.action AS kafkataa ON kafkataa.name = myttt.test_name WHERE myttt.test_name = '{$name}' LIMIT 1";

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Apache Kafkaͷ࢝Ίํ • Apache Kafkaެࣜϖʔδ͔Βμ΢ϯϩʔυ • Conﬂuent͔Βμ΢ϯϩʔυ • Kafka ConnectΛར༻͢ΔͷͰ͋Ε͹ɺ  Conﬂuentར༻͕Φεεϝ • Hadoop౳͕ͳͯ͘΋ར༻ՄೳͰ͢

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Apache Kafka GUI • Cluster؅ཧ   https://github.com/yahoo/kafka-manager • Message؅ཧ   https://github.com/landoop/kafka-topics-ui  https://github.com/ldaniels528/trifecta  https://github.com/Landoop/kafka-topics-ui  https://github.com/Landoop/kafka-connect-ui  ͳͲ

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·ͱΊ • ෳࡶԽͨ͠ΞϓϦέʔγϣϯɾ෼ࢄΞϓϦέʔγϣϯ ͷ໰୊ղܾͷҰͭ • KafkaҎ֎ͷMessage Queue΋બ୒ࢶʹ • StreamॲཧͳͲ͕ඞཁͰ͋Ε͹KafkaΛਪ঑ • ن໛ʹ͋Θͤͨϛυϧ΢ΣΞબఆɾো֐ରԠɾӡ༻Λ