Rhapsody in Zero Knowledge - Proving without Revealing

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Rhapsody in Zero Knowledge PROVING WITHOUT REVEALING Tony Arcieri · Strange Loop · September 14th, 2019

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Probabilistic Encryption & How To Play Mental Poker Keeping Secret All Partial Information Shaft Goldwasser * and Silvio Micali ** Computer Science Department University of California - Berkeley I. Introduction This paper proposes an Encryption Scheme that possess the following property: An adversary, who knows the encryption algorithm and is given the cyphertext, cannot obtain any information about the clear- text. Any implementation of a Public Key Cryptosys- tem, as proposed by Diffie and Hellman in [8], should possess this property. Our Encryption Scheme follows the ideas in the number theoretic implementations of a Public Key Cryptosystem due to Rivest, Shamir and Adleman [13], and Rabin [12]. Security is based on Complexity Theory and the intractability of some problems in number theory such as factoring, index finding and deciding whether numbers are quadratic resi- dues with respect to composite mvduli is assumed. In this context, impossibility means computational infeasibility and proving that a problem is hard means to show it equivalent to one of the above mentioned problems. The key idea in both the RSA scheme and the Rabin scheme is the selection of an appropriate trapdoor function; an easy to evaluate function f such that x is not easily computable from f(x), unless some extra information is known. To encrypt a message m, one simply evaluates f (m). Thin research was supported by * NSF Grant MCS-79-037667 ** fellowship from Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche - Italy and in part by NSF Grant MCS-79-037667 We would like to point out two basic weaknesses of this approach: 1) The fact that f is a trapdoor function does not rule out the possibility of computing x from ff (x) when x is of a special form. Usually messages do not consist of numbers chosen at random but possess more structure. Such structural information may help in decoding. For example, a function f, which is hard to invert on a generic input, could conceivably be easy to invert on the ASCII representations of English sentences. 2) The fact that f is a trapdoor function does not rule out the possibility of easily computing some partial information about z (even every other bit of x) from f (z). The danger in the case that z is the ASCII representation of an English sentence is self evident. Encrypting messages in a way that ensures the secrecy of all partial information is an extremely important goal in Cryptography. The importance of this point of view is particularly apparent if we want to use encryption to play card games over the telephone. If the suit or color of a card could be compromised the whole game could be invalid. Though no one knows how to break the RSA or the Rabin scheme, in none of these schemes is it proved that decoding is hard without any assumptions made on the message space. Rabin shows that, in his scheme, decoding is hard for an adversary if the set of possible messages has some density property. The novelty of our contribution consists of 1. The notion of Trapdoor Functions is replaced by Probabilistic Encryption. To encrypt each message we make use of a fair coin. The encoding of each message will depend on the message plus the result of a

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Trading Group Theory for Randomness La’siszld Babai Dept. Algebra Eijtviis University Rudapt~st Hungary II-1088 Abstract. la a previous paper [BS] we proved, using the elements of the Clwory of nilyotenf yroupu, that some of the /undamcn- la1 computational problems in mat& proup, belong to NP. These problems were also ahown to belong to CONP, assuming an unproven hypofhedi.9 concerning finilc simple Q’ oup,. The aim of this paper is t.o replace most of the (proven and unproven) group theory of IBS] by elementary com- binatorial argumenls. The rev& we prove is that relative to a random oracle f3, tbc meutioned matrix group problems belong to (NPncoNP)L! Thr problems we consider arr membership in and order of a matrix group given by a list of gnrrntors. These prob- trms can bc vicwrd as m~lt~idimcnsio~r;lI vemiorm of a closr rrldivr of t.hc disrrct,r logarilhm prob1c.m. I tencc A’ltiro.VI’ might be the lowrst natural romplcxity rla.us t bry may ii1 in. Wr remark that the resutt,s remain valid for blark boz groupa where group operations are prrformcd by an oracle. Thcb tools we inlroduce seem interesting in their own right. \Ve define a new hierarchy of complexit)y ctesscs A.4Ak) “just above NP’, introduring Arthur ud. Merlin games, the bonnded-away version of Pnpadimitriou’s Games against Nature. We prove th:rt. in spite of their analogy with the polynomial time hierarchy, the finite lev- rls of this hierarchy collapse t,o Afsf=Ah42). Using a com- binatorial lemma on finite groups [IIE], we construct a game by whirh t.he nondeterministic player (Merlin) is able to coavlnre the random player (Arthur) about the rctation ICj=N provided Arthur trusts conclusions based on st,a- tisticnl rvidrnce (such as a Solovay-Strassen type “proof” of primatit,y ). One can prove that AM consists precisely of t&ose langungrs which belong to iV@ for almost every oracle 13. Our hirrarchy has an intrrcsjdng, still unclarified reta- tion to imother hierarchy, obt,ained by rcnloving the cen- t.rat ingrrdirnt from the l&r ~a. Ezpcrl games of (;otctwassrr, Mirati and Rarkoff. permission 10 copy without fee all or part ot this material is granted provided that the copies arc not made or distributed for direct commercial advantage, the ACM copyright notice and the title of the publication and its date appear, and notice is given that copying is by permission of the Association for Computing Machinery. To copy otherwise, or to republish, requires a fee and/or specific permission. Q 1985 ACM 0-89791-ISI-2/85/005/0421 $00.75 Dept. Computer Science I Jnivrrsity of Chicago I 100 E 58th St. (Chicago, II, 60637 1. Introduction 1.1. Randomness vs. mathematical intractability: a tradeoff l’aul E&k has taught us that randomness can do miracles as tong as we don’t insist on explicit constructions. If we do, quite often much heavier mathrmatics has to be invoked - if there is any help at all. The few citSes where randomness has SUCCCSS- futiy hccn eliminated, like for expanding graphs, point to the tIiITiiculty (cf. [Pin], [PipJ vs. [Mar], [CC]). A ra.ndom st.ring can sometimes replace the most forrnidahle msthelrtotical hypothesis. The Solovay- Strnsscn bf(JntC? Carlo primality test [SS] vs. Gary Mittrr’s det.erministic primality test, based on the Extended ltirmann Hypothesis [Mill, is one of the famous examples. The objective of this paper is to introduce some new random tools to replace an unproven group theoretic hypothesis. 1.2. Matrix groups Lly far the most common wrry to represent groups is by matrices. This is almost the only way groups are being thought of in science. The term “ltcprceentation Theory” refers to matrix representations, a central tool in the theory of finite groups, har- monic analysis, quantum mechanics and other fields. It s.ppears that the main reason why compn+a- tional group theory has so far mainly concentrated on permutation groups is that while many of the basic problems in permutation groups are solvable in polynomial time (cf.[Sinr], (FHL], (BKL]), even the sim- plrst questions on matrix groups seem computationally infr.asiblc. The membership problem (does a given matrix belong to a group given by a list of generators?) is undecida6le for 4 by 4 integral matrices (hlih]. It seems therefore wise to r&rict our attention to malrix groups over finite fields. Here the basic problems (membership, order) are at least finite and in fact easily seen to belong to PSPACE, On the other ha.nd, finding a polynomial time algorithm seems hopclcss even in the one-dimensional (number theoretic) case. Concerning the place of these 421

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Private Coins versus Public Coins in Interactive Proof Systems Shaft Goldwasser* Computer Science Department MIT Michael Sipser** Computer Science Department University of California at Berkeley and Mathematics Department MIT Abstract An interactive proof system is a method by which one party of unlimited resources, called the prover, can convince a party of limited resources, call the verifier, of the truth of a proposition. The verifier may toss coins, ask repeated questions of the prover, and run efficient tests upon the prover's responses before deciding whether to be convinced. This extends the familiar proof system impli- cit in the notion of NP in that there the verifier may not toss coins or speak, but only listen and verify. Interactive proof systems may not yield proof in the strict mathematical sense: the "proofs" are probabilistic with an exponentially small, though non-zero chance of error. We consider two notions of interactive proof system. One, defined by Goldwasser, Micali, and Rackoff [GMR] permits the verifier a coin that can be tossed in private, i.e., a secret source of randomness. The Permission to copy without ice all or part of this material is granted provided that the copies are not made or distributed for direct commercial advantage, the ACM copyright notice and the title of the publication and its date appear, and notice is given that copying is by permission of the Association for Computing Machinery. To copy otherwise, or to republish, requires a fee and/or specific permission. © 1986 ACM 0-89791-193-8/86/0500/0059 $00.75 second, due to Babai, [B] requires that the outcome of the verifier's coin tosses be public and thus accessible to the prover. Our main result is that these two systems are equivalent in power with respect to language recognition. The notion of interactive proof system may be seen to yield a probabilistic analog to NP much as BPP is the probabilistic analog to P. We define the probabilistic, nondeterministic, polynomial time Turing machine and show that it is also equivalent in power to these systems. 1. Introduction In this century, the notions of proof and computation have been formalized and under- stood. With the arrival of complexity theory, the notion of what is efficiently provable became of interest. The class NP captured this notion, containing those languages for which proofs of membership can be verified by a deterministic polynomial time Turing machine. We can view NP as a proof-system consisting of two communicating Turing machines: the prover who guesses the proof * Research supported in part by NSF Grant 8509905 DCR. ** Research supported in part by NSF Grant MCS- 8304769 and Air Force Grant AFOSR-82-0326. 59

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Everything Provable is Provable in Zero-Knowledge Michael Ben-Or Hebrew University Oded Goldreich Shafi Goldwasser Johan Hhtad Joe Kilian Silvio Micali Phillip Rogaway Technion - Israel Institute of Technology M.I.T. Laboratory for Computer Science Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden M.I.T. Laboratory for Computer Science M.I.T. Laboratory for Computer Science M.I.T. Laboratory for Computer Science Abstract Assuming the existence of a secure probabilistic encryption scheme, we show that every language that admits an interactive proof admits a (computational) zero-knowledge interactive proof. This result extends the result of Goldreich, MiCali and Wigderson, that, under the same assumption, all of NP admits zero-knowledge interactive proofs. Assuming envelopes for bit commitment, we show tht every language that admits an interactive proof admits a perfect zero-knowledge interactive proof. 1. Introduction Suppose Bob is polynomially time-bounded, but Alice has unlimited computational resources. If q 5 is a satisfiable boolean formula, Alice can certainly convince Bob of this fact; she could send Bob a message y describing a satisfying truth assignment for 4, and Bob could check that y does indeed specify a satisfying truth assignment. In other words, the language L of satisfiable boolean formulas is in NP. The interaction between Alice and Bob in this example is very simple: Alice sends a single message to Bob, and no other messages are sent between the two. If q5 is satisfiable, there is some message y that Alice might send which will convince Bob to accept. But if q5 is not satisfiable, then no message that Alice might send w i l l convince Bob to accept. In the paper of Goldwasser, Micdi, and Rackoff [GMR], the authors extend the scenario above in two ways, to arrive at the notion of an interactive proof for the language L. First, the interaction between Alice and Bob is allowed to be more complicated, with Alice and Bob exchanging multiple messages. Secondly, Alice and Bob are taken to be probabilistic, and Bob may occasionally accept or reject erroneously. It is required that if an input is in L, then Alice can behave in such a way that Bob will almost always accept; but if an input is n o t in L, then, no mater what messages Alice sends, Bob will almost certainly reject. A different notion of provability “beyond NP” was independently proposed by Babai [Bab]. This notion is called an Arthur-Merlin protocol. Babai’s model is similar to that of [GMR], but is seemingly more limited, because the verifier is required to reveal to the prover all of his coin flips (right after making them). Though this loss of privacy seems an important restriction, Goldwasser and Sipser [GSJ show that, in fact, the models are equivalent with respect to language recognition. Let IP be the class of languages that admit interactive proofs. Clearly N P 5 I P , for an NP-interaction is a special type of IF‘-interaction, in which the prover (Alice) sends the one and only message, and the verifier (Bob) never errs. However, IP may be a much larger class of languages. For example, there is an interactive proof known for graph nonisomorphism, even though there are not known to be succinct certificates for establishing that a pair of graphs are not isomorphic.

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A note on efficient zero-knowledge proofs and arguments. (extended abstract) Joe Kilian NEC Research Institute Princeton, NJ 08540 Abstract In this note, we present new zero-knowledge interactive proofs and arguments for languages in NP. To show that z G L, with an error probability of at most 2-k, our zero-knowledge proof system requires O(lzlc’) + O(lg” l~l)k ideal bit commitments, where c1 and cz depend only on L. This construction is the first in the ideal bit commitment model that achieves large values of k more efficiently than by running k independent iterations of the base interactive proof system. Un- der suitable complexity assumptions, we exhibit a zer~ knowledge arguments that require O(lg’ Izl)ki bits of communication, where c depends only on L, and 1 is the security parameter for the prover.l This is the first construction in which the total amount of communication can be less than that needed to transmit the NP witness. Our protocols are based on efficiently checkable proofs for NP [4]. ~l–&lly~ 1is the size of some problem the poly-time bounded prover is assumed to be unable to solve. 1 Introduction. 1.1 The problem of efficient security amplification. The standard definition of interactive proofs[7] requires that the verifier accept a correct proof and reject an in- correct assertion with probability at least #. As there are few applications where a 1/3 error probability is acceptable, one usually tries to obtain an error probability less than 2-h, where k is some easily adjustable security parameter. The most obvious way of achieving this security amplification is take a protocol with a 1/3 error probability, run it O(k) times, and have the verifier accept or reject by majority vote. 2 Are there any more efficient ways of achieving security than by this simple technique? As we will show, the answer is yes, for a wide variety of languages, in a well known model for which no other amplification technique was previously known. The work of Boyar, Brasserd end Peralta. Our work is inspired by Boyar, Brassard and Peralta’s zerc+knowledge protocol for circuit satisjiabilii!y,g which for the first time achieved a more efficient security amplification than by the naive approach [1]. Their protocol achieved a 2-k error probability using only

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Computationally-Sound Proofs Silvio Micali Department of Computer Science Massachusetts Institute of Technology Cambridge, MA 02139, USA [email protected] Abstract. This paper puts forward a new notion of a proof based on computational complexity, and explores its implications to computation at large. Computationally-sound proofs provide, in a novel and meaningful frame- work, answers to old and new questions in complexity theory. In particular, given a random oracle or a new complexity assumption, they allow us to prove that verifying is easier than deciding; to provide a quite effec- tive way to prove membership in computationally hard languages (such as Co-ÀÀP-complete ones); and to show that every computation possesses a short certificate vouching its correctness. 1 Introduction A new notion. Proofs are fundamental to our lives, and as for all things fundamental we should expect that answering the question of what a proof is will always be an on-going process. Indeed, we wish to put forward the new notion of a computationally-sound proof (CS proof for brevity) which achieves new and important goals, not attained or even addressed by previous notions. Informally, a CS proof of a statement S consists of a short string Û, very easy to verify and as easy to find as possible, offering a strong computational guarantee about the verity of S. By "very easy to verify" we mean that the time necessary to inspect a CS Proof of a statement S is poly-logarithmically shorter than that required to decide S. By "as easy to find as possible" we mean that a CS proof of a true statement (i.e., for the purposes of this paper, derivable in a given axiomatic theory) can be computed in a time essentially comparable to that needed to decide the statement. Finally, by saying that the guarantee offered by a CS proof is "computational" we mean that false statements either do not have any CS proofs, or such "proofs" are practically impossible to find. Implementations of CS proofs. The value of a new notion, of course, cru- cially depends on whether it can be sufficiently exemplified. We provide two

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Zerocash: Decentralized Anonymous Payments from Bitcoin Eli Ben-Sasson⇤, Alessandro Chiesa†, Christina Garman‡, Matthew Green‡, Ian Miers‡, Eran Tromer§, Madars Virza† ⇤Technion, [email protected] †MIT, {alexch, madars}@mit.edu ‡Johns Hopkins University, {cgarman, imiers, mgreen}@cs.jhu.edu §Tel Aviv University, [email protected] Abstract —Bitcoin is the first digital currency to see widespread adoption. While payments are conducted between pseudonyms, Bitcoin cannot offer strong privacy guarantees: payment transactions are recorded in a public decentralized ledger, from which much information can be deduced. Zerocoin (Miers et al., IEEE S&P 2013) tackles some of these privacy issues by unlinking transactions from the payment’s origin. Yet, it still reveals payments’ destinations and amounts, and is limited in functionality. In this paper, we construct a full-fledged ledger-based digital currency with strong privacy guarantees. Our results leverage recent advances in zero-knowledge Succinct Non-interactive AR- guments of Knowledge (zk-SNARKs). First, we formulate and construct decentralized anonymous payment schemes (DAP schemes). A DAP scheme enables users to directly pay each other privately: the corresponding transaction hides the payment’s origin, destination, and transferred amount. We provide formal definitions and proofs of the construction’s security. Second, we build Zerocash, a practical instantiation of our DAP scheme construction. In Zerocash, transactions are less than 1 kB and take under 6 ms to verify — orders of magnitude more efficient than the less-anonymous Zerocoin and competitive with plain Bitcoin. Keywords: Bitcoin, decentralized electronic cash, zero knowledge I. INTRODUCTION Bitcoin is the first digital currency to achieve widespread adoption. The currency owes its rise in part to the fact that, unlike traditional e-cash schemes [1, 2, 3], it requires no trusted parties. Instead of appointing a central bank, Bitcoin leverages a distributed ledger known as the block chain to store transactions made between users. Because the block chain is massively replicated by mutually-distrustful peers, the information it contains is public. While users may employ many identities (or pseudonyms) to enhance their privacy, an increasing body of research shows that anyone can de-anonymize Bitcoin by using information in the block chain [4, 5, 6], such as the structure of the transaction graph as well as the value and dates of transactions. As a result, Bitcoin fails to offer even a modicum of the privacy provided by traditional payment systems, let alone the robust privacy of anonymous e-cash schemes. While Bitcoin is not anonymous itself, those with sufficient motivation can obfuscate their transaction history with the help of mixes (also known as laundries or tumblers). A mix allows users to entrust a set of coins to a pool operated by a central party and then, after some interval, retrieve different coins (with the same total value) from the pool. Yet, mixes suffer from three limitations: (i) the delay to reclaim coins must be large to allow enough coins to be mixed in; (ii) the mix can trace coins; and (iii) the mix may steal coins.1 For users with “something to hide,” these risks may be acceptable. But typical legitimate users (1) wish to keep their spending habits private from their peers, (2) are risk-averse and do not wish to expend continual effort in protecting their privacy, and (3) are often not sufficiently aware of their compromised privacy. To protect their privacy, users thus need an instant, risk-free, and, most importantly, automatic guarantee that data revealing their spending habits and account balances is not publicly accessible by their neighbors, co-workers, and merchants. Anonymous transactions also guarantee that the market value of a coin is independent of its history, thus ensuring legitimate users’ coins remain fungible.2 Zerocoin: a decentralized mix. Miers et al. [8] proposed Zerocoin, which extends Bitcoin to provide strong anonymity guarantees. Like many e-cash protocols (e.g., [2]), Zerocoin employs zero-knowledge proofs to prevent transaction graph analyses. Unlike earlier practical e-cash protocols, however, Zerocoin does not rely on digital signatures to validate coins, nor does it require a central bank to prevent double spending. Instead, Zerocoin authenticates coins by proving, in zero- knowledge, that they belong to a public list of valid coins (which can be maintained on the block chain). Yet, rather than a full-fledged anonymous currency, Zerocoin is a decentralized mix, where users may periodically “wash” their bitcoins via the Zerocoin protocol. Routine day-to-day transactions must be conducted via Bitcoin, due to reasons that we now review. The first reason is performance. Redeeming zerocoins requires double-discrete-logarithm proofs of knowledge, which have size that exceeds 45 kB and require 450 ms to verify (at the 128-bit security level).3 These proofs must be broadcast 1CoinJoin [7], an alternative proposal, replaces the central party of a mix with multi-signature transactions that involve many collaborating Bitcoin users. CoinJoin can thus only mix small volumes of coins amongst users who are currently online, is prone to denial-of-service attacks by third parties, and requires effort to find mixing partners. 2While the methods we detail in this paper accomplish this, the same techniques open the door for privacy preserving accountability and oversight (see Section X). 3These published numbers [8] actually use a mix of parameters at both 128-bit and 80-bit security for different components of the construction. The cost is higher if all parameters are instantiated at the 128-bit security level. 2014 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy © 2014, Eli Ben-Sasson. Under license to IEEE. DOI 10.1109/SP.2014.36 459

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Scalable Zero Knowledge via Cycles of Elliptic Curves (extended version) Eli Ben-Sasson [email protected] Technion Alessandro Chiesa [email protected] MIT Eran Tromer [email protected] Tel Aviv University Madars Virza [email protected] MIT April 28, 2015 Abstract Non-interactive zero-knowledge proofs of knowledge for general NP statements are a powerful cryptographic primitive, both in theory and in practical applications. Recently, much research has focused on achieving an additional property, succinctness, requiring the proof to be very short and easy to verify. Such proof systems are known as zero-knowledge succinct non-interactive arguments of knowledge (zk-SNARKs), and are desired when communication is expensive, or the verifier is computationally weak. Existing zk-SNARK implementations have severe scalability limitations, in terms of space complexity as a function of the size of the computation being proved (e.g., running time of the NP statement’s decision program). First, the size of the proving key is quasilinear in the upper bound on the computation size. Second, producing a proof requires “writing down” all intermediate values of the entire computation, and then conducting global operations such as FFTs. The bootstrapping technique of Bitansky et al. (STOC ’13), following Valiant (TCC ’08), offers an approach to scalability, by recursively composing proofs: proving statements about acceptance of the proof system’s own verifier (and correctness of the program’s latest step). Alas, recursive composition of known zk-SNARKs has never been realized in practice, due to enormous computational cost. Using new elliptic-curve cryptographic techniques, and methods for exploiting the proof systems’ field structure and nondeterminism, we achieve the first zk-SNARK implementation that practically achieves recursive proof composition. Our zk-SNARK implementation runs random-access machine programs and produces proofs of their correct execution, on today’s hardware, for any program running time. It takes constant time to generate the keys that support all computation sizes. Subsequently, the proving process only incurs a constant multiplicative overhead compared to the original computation’s time, and an essentially-constant additive overhead in memory. Thus, our zk-SNARK implementation is the first to have a well-defined, albeit low, clock rate of “verified instructions per second”. Keywords: computationally-sound proofs, proof-carrying data, zero knowledge, elliptic curves

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Bulletproofs: Short Proofs for Confidential Transactions and More Benedikt B¨ unz⇤1, Jonathan Bootle†2, Dan Boneh‡1, Andrew Poelstra§3, Pieter Wuille¶3, and Greg Maxwellk 1Stanford University 2University College London 3Blockstream Full Version⇤⇤ Abstract We propose Bulletproofs, a new non-interactive zero-knowledge proof protocol with very short proofs and without a trusted setup; the proof size is only logarithmic in the witness size. Bulletproofs are especially well suited for e cient range proofs on committed values: they enable proving that a committed value is in a range using only 2 log2 pnq ` 9 group and field elements, where n is the bit length of the range. Proof generation and verification times are linear in n. Bulletproofs greatly improve on the linear (in n) sized range proofs in existing proposals for confidential transactions in Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies. Moreover, Bulletproofs supports aggregation of range proofs, so that a party can prove that m commitments lie in a given range by providing only an additive Oplogpmqq group elements over the length of a single proof. To aggregate proofs from multiple parties, we enable the parties to generate a single proof without revealing their inputs to each other via a simple multi-party computation (MPC) protocol for constructing Bulletproofs. This MPC protocol uses either a constant number of rounds and linear communication, or a logarithmic number of rounds and logarithmic communication. We show that verification time, while asymptotically linear, is very e cient in practice. Moreover, the verification of multiple Bulletproofs can be batched for further speed-up. Concretely, the marginal time to verify an aggregation of 16 range proofs is about the same as the time to verify 16 ECDSA signatures. Bulletproofs build on the techniques of Bootle et al. (EUROCRYPT 2016). Beyond range proofs, Bulletproofs provide short zero-knowledge proofs for general arithmetic circuits while only relying on the discrete logarithm assumption and without requiring a trusted setup. We discuss many applications that would benefit from Bulletproofs, primarily in the area of cryptocurrencies. The e ciency of Bulletproofs is particularly well suited for the distributed and trustless nature of blockchains. ⇤ [email protected] † [email protected] ‡ [email protected] § [email protected] ¶ [email protected] k

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Scalable, transparent, and post-quantum secure computational integrity Eli Ben-Sasson* Iddo Bentov† Yinon Horesh* Michael Riabzev* March 6, 2018 Abstract Human dignity demands that personal information, like medical and forensic data, be hidden from the public. But veils of secrecy designed to preserve privacy may also be abused to cover up lies and deceit by institutions entrusted with Data, unjustly harming citizens and eroding trust in central institutions. Zero knowledge (ZK) proof systems are an ingenious cryptographic solution to this tension between the ideals of personal privacy and institutional integrity, enforcing the latter in a way that does not compromise the former. Public trust demands transparency from ZK systems, meaning they be set up with no reliance on any trusted party, and have no trapdoors that could be exploited by powerful parties to bear false witness. For ZK systems to be used with Big Data, it is imperative that the public verification process scale sublinearly in data size. Transparent ZK proofs that can be verified exponentially faster than data size were first described in the 1990s but early constructions were impractical, and no ZK system realized thus far in code (including that used by crypto-currencies like Zcash™) has achieved both transparency and exponential verification speedup, simultaneously, for general computations. Here we report the first realization of a transparent ZK system (ZK-STARK) in which verification scales exponentially faster than database size, and moreover, this exponential speedup in verification is observed concretely for meaningful and sequential computations, described next. Our system uses several recent advances on interactive oracle proofs (IOP), such as a “fast” (linear time) IOP system for error correcting codes. Our proof-of-concept system allows the Police to prove to the public that the DNA profile of a Presidential Candidate does not appear in the forensic DNA profile database maintained by the Police. The proof, which is generated by the Police, relies on no external trusted party, and reveals no further information about the contents of the database, nor about the candidate’s profile. In particular, no DNA information is disclosed to any party outside the Police. The proof is shorter than the size of the DNA database, and verified faster than the time needed to examine that database na¨ ıvely.

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Spartan: Efficient and general-purpose zkSNARKs without trusted setup Srinath Setty Microsoft Research Abstract This paper describes a new public coin, succinct interactive zero-knowledge argument for NP under standard cryptographic hardness assumptions—without requiring a trusted setup. In particular, our argument enables a prover to prove the satisfiability of arithmetic circuits over a large finite field (an NP-complete language for which there exist efficient reductions from high-level programs of practical interest) to a verifier. We construct this argument through a novel synthesis of techniques from prior work on short PCPs, MIPs, and doubly-efficient IPs. Specifically, our interactive argument is a succinct variant of the sum-check protocol where the protocol is run with a carefully-constructed low-degree polynomial that encodes a given circuit satisfiability instance. Since our interactive argument is public coin, we make it non-interactive in the random oracle model, thereby obtaining a zero-knowledge succinct non-interactive argument of knowledge (zkSNARK), which we call Spartan. Spartan is the first zkSNARK without trusted setup (i.e., a “transparent” zkSNARK) where verifying a proof incurs sub-linear costs without requiring data parallelism (or other homogeneity) in the structure of an arithmetic circuit for which a proof is produced. To achieve this, Spartan introduces a notion of computation commitments—a primitive to create a short cryptographic commitment to a mathematical description of an arithmetic circuit. Finally, Spartan is asymptotically efficient with small constants: the prover performs O(n) cryptographic operations to produce a proof of size O(n1/c) that can be verified in O(n1 1/c) time (after a one-time, public preprocessing of the circuit to create a computation commitment that takes O(n) time), where n denotes the size of an arithmetic circuit and c 2 (Spartan can produce O(log n)-sized proofs, but the verifier incurs O(n) costs). 1 Introduction We revisit the problem of designing succinct zero-knowledge arguments for a general class of applications. In particular, we are interested in arguments for the complexity class NP [32, 66, 73]: they enable a computationally-bounded prover to convince the membership of a problem instance in an NP language without revealing anything besides the validity of

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