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Chapter 23 Minimum Spanning Trees Sun-Yuan Hsieh 謝孫源 教授 成功大學資訊工程學系

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2 Overview Problem A town has a set of houses and a set of roads. A road connects 2 and only 2 houses. A road connecting houses u and v has a repair cost w(u, v). Goal: Repair enough (and no more) roads such that 1. everyone stays connected: can reach every house from all other houses, and 2. total repair cost is minimum.

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3 Overview Model as a graph: Undirected graph G = (V, E) Weight w(u, v) on each edge (u, v)  E Find T  E such that 1. T connects all vertices (T is a spanning tree), and 2. is minimized.    T v u v u w T w ) , ( ) , ( ) (

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4 Overview A spanning tree whose weight is minimum over all spanning trees is called a minimum spanning tree, or MST. Example of such a graph [edges in MST are shaded] : In this example, there is more than one MST. Replace edge (e, f) by (c, e). Get a different spanning tree with the same weight. a c d b h e f g i 10 12 9 3 3 1 6 5 11 2 9 8 8 7

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5 Growing a minimum spanning tree Some properties of an MST: It has |V|1 edges. It has no cycles. It might not be unique. Building up the solution We will build a set A of edges. Initially, A has no edges. As we add edges to A, maintain a loop invariant: Loop invariant: A is a subset of some MST.

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6 Growing a minimum spanning tree Add only edges that maintain the invariant. If A is a subset of some MST, an edge (u, v) is safe for A if and only if A  {(u, v)} is also a subset of some MST. So we will add only safe edges. Generic MST algorithm GENERIC-MST(G, w) 1. A  Ø 2. while A is not a spanning tree 3. do find an edge (u, v) that is safe for A 4. A  A  {(u, v)} 5. return A

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7 Use the loop invariant to show that this generic algorithm works. Initialization: The empty set trivially satisfies the loop invariant. Maintenance: Since we add only safe edges, A remains a subset of some MST. Termination: All edges added to A are in an MST, so when we stop, A is spanning tree that is also an MST.

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8 Finding a safe edge How do we find safe edges? Let’s look at the example. Edge (c, f ) has the lowest weight of any edge in the Graph. Is it safe for A = Ø? Intuitively: Let S  V be any set of vertices that includes c but not f (so that f is in V  S). In any MST, there has to be one edge (at least) that connects S with V  S. Why not choose the edge with minimum weight? (Which would be (c, f ) in this case.)

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9 Some definitions: Let S  V and A  E. A cut (S, VS) is a partition of vertices into disjoint sets S and VS. Edge (u, v)  E crosses cut (S, VS) if one endpoint is in S and the other is in VS. A cut respects A if and only if no edge in A crosses the cut. An edge is a light edge crossing a cut if and only if its weight is minimum over all edges crossing the cut. For a given cut, there can be > 1 light edge crossing it.

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10 Theorem Let A be a subset of some MST, (S, VS) be a cut that respects A, and (u, v) be a light edge crossing (S, VS). Then (u, v) is safe for A. Proof Let T be an MST that includes A. If T contains (u, v) , done. So now assume that T does not contain (u, v) . We’ll construct a different MST T that includes A  {(u, v)}. Recall: a tree has unique path between each pair of vertices. Since T is an MST, it contains a unique path p between u and v. Path p must cross the cut (S, VS) at least once. Let (x, y) be an edge of p that crosses the cut. From how We chose (u, v) , must have w(u, v)  w(x, y)

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11 S VS u x v y [Except for the dashed edge (u, v), all edges shown are in T. A is some subset of the edges of T, but A cannot contain any edges that cross the cut (S, VS), since this cut respects A. Shaded edges are the path p.]

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12 Since the cut respects A, edge (x, y) is not in A. To from T from T: Remove (x, y) . Breaks T into two components. Add (u, v) . Reconnects. So T = T  {(x, y)} {(u, v)}. T is a spanning tree. w(T) = w(T) w(x, y) + w(u, v)  w(T) since w(u, v)  w(x, y) . Since T is a spanning tree, w(T)  w(T), and T is an MST, then T must be an MST.

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13 Need to show that (u, v) is safe for A: A  T and (x, y)  A  A  T A  {(u, v)}  T Since T is an MST, (u, v) is safe for A.

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14 GENERIC-MST: A is a forest containing connected components. Initially, each component is a single vertex. Any safe edge merge two of these components into one. Each component is a tree. Since an MST has exactly |V|1 edges, the for loop iterates |V|1 times. Equivalently, after adding |V|1 safe edges, we’re down to just one component.

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15 Corollary If C = (VC , EC ) is a connected component in the forest GA = (V, A) and (u, v) is a light edge connecting C to some other component in GA (i.e., (u, v) is a Light edge crossing the cut (VC , VVC )), then (u, v) is safe for A. Proof Set S = VC in the theorem. This naturally leads to the algorithm called Kruskal’s algorithm to solve the Minimum-spanning-tree problem.

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16 Kruskal’s algorithm G = (V,E) is a connected, undirected, weighted graph. w: E   Starts with each vertex being its own component. Repeatedly merges two components into one by choosing the light edge that connects them (i.e., the light edge crossing the cut between them). Scans the set of edges in monotonically increasing order by weight. Uses a disjoint-set data structure to determine whether an edge connects vertices in different components.

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17 KRUSKAL(V, E, w) 1. A  Ø 2. for each vertex v  V[G] 3. do MAKE-SET(v) 4. sort E into nondecreasing order by weight w 5. for each (u, v) taken from the sorted list 6. do if FIND-SET(u)  FIND-SET(v) 7. then A  A  {(u, v)} 8. UNION(u,v) 9. return A

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18 Run through the above example to see how Kruskal’s algorithm works on it: 10 12 8 8 3 1 6 11 2 7 3 5 9 9 a b d c e f h g i

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18 Run through the above example to see how Kruskal’s algorithm works on it: (c, f) : chosen 10 12 8 8 3 1 6 11 2 7 3 5 9 9 a b d c e f h g i

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18 Run through the above example to see how Kruskal’s algorithm works on it: (c, f) : chosen (g, i) : chosen 10 12 8 8 3 1 6 11 2 7 3 5 9 9 a b d c e f h g i

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18 Run through the above example to see how Kruskal’s algorithm works on it: (c, f) : chosen (g, i) : chosen (e, f) : chosen 10 12 8 8 3 1 6 11 2 7 3 5 9 9 a b d c e f h g i

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18 Run through the above example to see how Kruskal’s algorithm works on it: (c, f) : chosen (g, i) : chosen (e, f) : chosen (c, e) : reject 10 12 8 8 3 1 6 11 2 7 3 5 9 9 a b d c e f h g i 

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18 Run through the above example to see how Kruskal’s algorithm works on it: (c, f) : chosen (g, i) : chosen (e, f) : chosen (c, e) : reject (d, h) : chosen 10 12 8 8 3 1 6 11 2 7 3 5 9 9 a b d c e f h g i 

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18 Run through the above example to see how Kruskal’s algorithm works on it: (c, f) : chosen (g, i) : chosen (e, f) : chosen (c, e) : reject (d, h) : chosen (f, h) : chosen 10 12 8 8 3 1 6 11 2 7 3 5 9 9 a b d c e f h g i 

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18 Run through the above example to see how Kruskal’s algorithm works on it: (c, f) : chosen (g, i) : chosen (e, f) : chosen (c, e) : reject (d, h) : chosen (f, h) : chosen (e, d) : reject 10 12 8 8 3 1 6 11 2 7 3 5 9 9 a b d c e f h g i  

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18 Run through the above example to see how Kruskal’s algorithm works on it: (c, f) : chosen (g, i) : chosen (e, f) : chosen (c, e) : reject (d, h) : chosen (f, h) : chosen (e, d) : reject (b, d) : chosen 10 12 8 8 3 1 6 11 2 7 3 5 9 9 a b d c e f h g i  

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18 Run through the above example to see how Kruskal’s algorithm works on it: (c, f) : chosen (g, i) : chosen (e, f) : chosen (c, e) : reject (d, h) : chosen (f, h) : chosen (e, d) : reject (b, d) : chosen (d, g) : chosen 10 12 8 8 3 1 6 11 2 7 3 5 9 9 a b d c e f h g i  

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18 Run through the above example to see how Kruskal’s algorithm works on it: (c, f) : chosen (g, i) : chosen (e, f) : chosen (c, e) : reject (d, h) : chosen (f, h) : chosen (e, d) : reject (b, d) : chosen (d, g) : chosen (b, c) : reject 10 12 8 8 3 1 6 11 2 7 3 5 9 9 a b d c e f h g i   

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18 Run through the above example to see how Kruskal’s algorithm works on it: (c, f) : chosen (g, i) : chosen (e, f) : chosen (c, e) : reject (d, h) : chosen (f, h) : chosen (e, d) : reject (b, d) : chosen (d, g) : chosen (b, c) : reject (g, h) : reject 10 12 8 8 3 1 6 11 2 7 3 5 9 9 a b d c e f h g i    

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18 Run through the above example to see how Kruskal’s algorithm works on it: (c, f) : chosen (g, i) : chosen (e, f) : chosen (c, e) : reject (d, h) : chosen (f, h) : chosen (e, d) : reject (b, d) : chosen (d, g) : chosen (b, c) : reject (g, h) : reject (a, b) : chosen 10 12 8 8 3 1 6 11 2 7 3 5 9 9 a b d c e f h g i    

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19 At this point, we have only one component, so all other edges will be rejected. [We could add a test to the main loop of KRUSKAL to stop once |V|1 edges have been added to A.] Get the shaded edges shown in the figure. Suppose we had examined (c, e) before (e, f). Then, would have found (c, e) safe and would have rejected (e, f).

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20 Analysis Initialize A: O(1) First for loop: |V|MAKE-SETS Sort E: O(E lgE) Second for loop: O(E) FIND-SETS and UNIONS

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21 Assuming the implementation of disjoint-set data structure, already seen in chapter21, that uses union by rank and path compression: O((V + E)(V)) + O(E lg E) Since G is connected, |E|  |V|  1  O(E (V)) + O(E lg E). (|V|) = O(lg V) = O(lg E) Therefore, total time is O(E lg E). |E|  |V|2  lg |E| = O(2 lg V) = O(lg V) Therefore, O(E lg V) time. (If edges are already sorted, O(E(V)), which is almost linear.)

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22 Prim’s algorithm Builds one tree, so A is always a tree. Starts from an arbitrary “root” r. At each step, find a light edge crossing cut (VA , VVA ), where VA = vertices that A is incident on. Add this edge to A. VA Light edge [Edges of A are shaded.] V  VA

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23 How to find the light edge quickly? Use a priority queue Q: Each object is a vertex in VVA . Key of v is minimum weight of any edge (u, v) , where u  VA . Then the vertex returned by EXTRACT-MIN is v such that there exists u  VA and (u, v) is light edge crossing (VA , VVA ). Key of v is  if v is not adjacent to any vertices in VA .

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24 The edges of A will form a rooted tree with root r: r is given as an input to the algorithm, but it can be any vertex. Each vertex knows its parent in the tree by the attribute [v]= parent of v. [v] = NIL if v = r or v has no parent. As algorithm progresses, A = {(v, [v]) : v  V{r}Q}. At termination, }. } { : ) ] [ , {( is MST so , r V v v v A Q V V A        

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25 PRIM(V, E, w, r) 1. Q  Ø 2. for each u  V[G] 3. do key[u]   4. [u]  NIL 5. INSERT(Q, u) 6. DECREASE-KEY(Q, r, 0) 7. while Q  Ø 8. do u  EXTRACT-MIN(Q) 9. for each v  Adj[u] 10. do if v  Q and w(u, v) < key[v] 11. then [v]  u 12. DECREASE-KEY(Q, v, w(u, v) )

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10 a 8 12 b a 12 8 a b 2 12 8 i b a 2 12 8 i b a 8 12 8 11 g b a i 8 12 8 11 b g a i 5 12 9 11 9 d g a i b 11 12 5 9 9 i d a g b 6 12 7 ∞ 9 ∞ h d a g b i ∞ 12 6 7 9 ∞ g h a d b i 3 12 6 ∞ 9 ∞ ∞ e h a d b i g 6 12 3 ∞ 9 ∞ ∞ h e a d b i g Run through the above example to see how Prim’s algorithm works on it: Vertex c has been chosen as a starting point. 26 10 12 3 1 6 11 2 7 3 5 9 9 a b d c e f h g i 8 8 ∞ 1 12 3 ∞ 9 ∞ ∞ f e a d b i g h ∞ ∞ 12 9 ∞ 3 1 ∞ i b a d e f g h ∞ ∞ 0 ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ c b a d e f g h i ∞ ∞ ∞ 0 ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ a b c d e f g h i ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ a b c d e f g h i

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10 a 8 12 b a 12 8 a b 2 12 8 i b a 2 12 8 i b a 8 12 8 11 g b a i 8 12 8 11 b g a i 5 12 9 11 9 d g a i b 11 12 5 9 9 i d a g b 6 12 7 ∞ 9 ∞ h d a g b i ∞ 12 6 7 9 ∞ g h a d b i 3 12 6 ∞ 9 ∞ ∞ e h a d b i g 6 12 3 ∞ 9 ∞ ∞ h e a d b i g Run through the above example to see how Prim’s algorithm works on it: Vertex c has been chosen as a starting point. 26 10 12 3 1 6 11 2 7 3 5 9 9 a b d c e f h g i 8 8 ∞ 1 12 3 ∞ 9 ∞ ∞ f e a d b i g h ∞ ∞ 12 9 ∞ 3 1 ∞ i b a d e f g h ∞ ∞ 0 ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ c b a d e f g h i ∞ ∞ ∞ 0 ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ a b c d e f g h i

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10 a 8 12 b a 12 8 a b 2 12 8 i b a 2 12 8 i b a 8 12 8 11 g b a i 8 12 8 11 b g a i 5 12 9 11 9 d g a i b 11 12 5 9 9 i d a g b 6 12 7 ∞ 9 ∞ h d a g b i ∞ 12 6 7 9 ∞ g h a d b i 3 12 6 ∞ 9 ∞ ∞ e h a d b i g 6 12 3 ∞ 9 ∞ ∞ h e a d b i g Run through the above example to see how Prim’s algorithm works on it: Vertex c has been chosen as a starting point. 26 10 12 3 1 6 11 2 7 3 5 9 9 a b d c e f h g i 8 8 ∞ 1 12 3 ∞ 9 ∞ ∞ f e a d b i g h ∞ ∞ 12 9 ∞ 3 1 ∞ i b a d e f g h ∞ ∞ 0 ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ c b a d e f g h i

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10 a 8 12 b a 12 8 a b 2 12 8 i b a 2 12 8 i b a 8 12 8 11 g b a i 8 12 8 11 b g a i 5 12 9 11 9 d g a i b 11 12 5 9 9 i d a g b 6 12 7 ∞ 9 ∞ h d a g b i ∞ 12 6 7 9 ∞ g h a d b i 3 12 6 ∞ 9 ∞ ∞ e h a d b i g 6 12 3 ∞ 9 ∞ ∞ h e a d b i g Run through the above example to see how Prim’s algorithm works on it: Vertex c has been chosen as a starting point. 26 10 12 3 1 6 11 2 7 3 5 9 9 a b d c e f h g i 8 8 ∞ 1 12 3 ∞ 9 ∞ ∞ f e a d b i g h ∞ ∞ 12 9 ∞ 3 1 ∞ i b a d e f g h root

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10 a 8 12 b a 12 8 a b 2 12 8 i b a 2 12 8 i b a 8 12 8 11 g b a i 8 12 8 11 b g a i 5 12 9 11 9 d g a i b 11 12 5 9 9 i d a g b 6 12 7 ∞ 9 ∞ h d a g b i ∞ 12 6 7 9 ∞ g h a d b i 3 12 6 ∞ 9 ∞ ∞ e h a d b i g 6 12 3 ∞ 9 ∞ ∞ h e a d b i g Run through the above example to see how Prim’s algorithm works on it: Vertex c has been chosen as a starting point. 26 10 12 3 1 6 11 2 7 3 5 9 9 a b d c e f h g i 8 8 ∞ 1 12 3 ∞ 9 ∞ ∞ f e a d b i g h root

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10 a 8 12 b a 12 8 a b 2 12 8 i b a 2 12 8 i b a 8 12 8 11 g b a i 8 12 8 11 b g a i 5 12 9 11 9 d g a i b 11 12 5 9 9 i d a g b 6 12 7 ∞ 9 ∞ h d a g b i ∞ 12 6 7 9 ∞ g h a d b i 3 12 6 ∞ 9 ∞ ∞ e h a d b i g 6 12 3 ∞ 9 ∞ ∞ h e a d b i g Run through the above example to see how Prim’s algorithm works on it: Vertex c has been chosen as a starting point. 26 10 12 3 1 6 11 2 7 3 5 9 9 a b d c e f h g i 8 8 ∞ 1 12 3 ∞ 9 ∞ ∞ f e a d b i g h (c, f) : chosen root

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10 a 8 12 b a 12 8 a b 2 12 8 i b a 2 12 8 i b a 8 12 8 11 g b a i 8 12 8 11 b g a i 5 12 9 11 9 d g a i b 11 12 5 9 9 i d a g b 6 12 7 ∞ 9 ∞ h d a g b i ∞ 12 6 7 9 ∞ g h a d b i 3 12 6 ∞ 9 ∞ ∞ e h a d b i g 6 12 3 ∞ 9 ∞ ∞ h e a d b i g Run through the above example to see how Prim’s algorithm works on it: Vertex c has been chosen as a starting point. 26 10 12 3 1 6 11 2 7 3 5 9 9 a b d c e f h g i 8 8 (c, f) : chosen root

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10 a 8 12 b a 12 8 a b 2 12 8 i b a 2 12 8 i b a 8 12 8 11 g b a i 8 12 8 11 b g a i 5 12 9 11 9 d g a i b 11 12 5 9 9 i d a g b 6 12 7 ∞ 9 ∞ h d a g b i ∞ 12 6 7 9 ∞ g h a d b i 3 12 6 ∞ 9 ∞ ∞ e h a d b i g Run through the above example to see how Prim’s algorithm works on it: Vertex c has been chosen as a starting point. 26 10 12 3 1 6 11 2 7 3 5 9 9 a b d c e f h g i 8 8 (c, f) : chosen root

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10 a 8 12 b a 12 8 a b 2 12 8 i b a 2 12 8 i b a 8 12 8 11 g b a i 8 12 8 11 b g a i 5 12 9 11 9 d g a i b 11 12 5 9 9 i d a g b 6 12 7 ∞ 9 ∞ h d a g b i ∞ 12 6 7 9 ∞ g h a d b i 3 12 6 ∞ 9 ∞ ∞ e h a d b i g Run through the above example to see how Prim’s algorithm works on it: Vertex c has been chosen as a starting point. 26 10 12 3 1 6 11 2 7 3 5 9 9 a b d c e f h g i 8 8 (c, f) : chosen root (e, f) : chosen

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10 a 8 12 b a 12 8 a b 2 12 8 i b a 2 12 8 i b a 8 12 8 11 g b a i 8 12 8 11 b g a i 5 12 9 11 9 d g a i b 11 12 5 9 9 i d a g b 6 12 7 ∞ 9 ∞ h d a g b i ∞ 12 6 7 9 ∞ g h a d b i Run through the above example to see how Prim’s algorithm works on it: Vertex c has been chosen as a starting point. 26 10 12 3 1 6 11 2 7 3 5 9 9 a b d c e f h g i 8 8 (c, f) : chosen root (e, f) : chosen

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10 a 8 12 b a 12 8 a b 2 12 8 i b a 2 12 8 i b a 8 12 8 11 g b a i 8 12 8 11 b g a i 5 12 9 11 9 d g a i b 11 12 5 9 9 i d a g b 6 12 7 ∞ 9 ∞ h d a g b i Run through the above example to see how Prim’s algorithm works on it: Vertex c has been chosen as a starting point. 26 10 12 3 1 6 11 2 7 3 5 9 9 a b d c e f h g i 8 8 (c, f) : chosen root (e, f) : chosen

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10 a 8 12 b a 12 8 a b 2 12 8 i b a 2 12 8 i b a 8 12 8 11 g b a i 8 12 8 11 b g a i 5 12 9 11 9 d g a i b 11 12 5 9 9 i d a g b 6 12 7 ∞ 9 ∞ h d a g b i Run through the above example to see how Prim’s algorithm works on it: Vertex c has been chosen as a starting point. 26 10 12 3 1 6 11 2 7 3 5 9 9 a b d c e f h g i 8 8 (c, f) : chosen root (e, f) : chosen (f, h) : chosen

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10 a 8 12 b a 12 8 a b 2 12 8 i b a 2 12 8 i b a 8 12 8 11 g b a i 8 12 8 11 b g a i 5 12 9 11 9 d g a i b 11 12 5 9 9 i d a g b Run through the above example to see how Prim’s algorithm works on it: Vertex c has been chosen as a starting point. 26 10 12 3 1 6 11 2 7 3 5 9 9 a b d c e f h g i 8 8 (c, f) : chosen root (e, f) : chosen (f, h) : chosen

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10 a 8 12 b a 12 8 a b 2 12 8 i b a 2 12 8 i b a 8 12 8 11 g b a i 8 12 8 11 b g a i 5 12 9 11 9 d g a i b Run through the above example to see how Prim’s algorithm works on it: Vertex c has been chosen as a starting point. 26 10 12 3 1 6 11 2 7 3 5 9 9 a b d c e f h g i 8 8 (c, f) : chosen root (e, f) : chosen (f, h) : chosen

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10 a 8 12 b a 12 8 a b 2 12 8 i b a 2 12 8 i b a 8 12 8 11 g b a i 8 12 8 11 b g a i 5 12 9 11 9 d g a i b Run through the above example to see how Prim’s algorithm works on it: Vertex c has been chosen as a starting point. 26 10 12 3 1 6 11 2 7 3 5 9 9 a b d c e f h g i 8 8 (c, f) : chosen root (e, f) : chosen (f, h) : chosen (d, h) : chosen

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10 a 8 12 b a 12 8 a b 2 12 8 i b a 2 12 8 i b a 8 12 8 11 g b a i 8 12 8 11 b g a i Run through the above example to see how Prim’s algorithm works on it: Vertex c has been chosen as a starting point. 26 10 12 3 1 6 11 2 7 3 5 9 9 a b d c e f h g i 8 8 (c, f) : chosen root (e, f) : chosen (f, h) : chosen (d, h) : chosen

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10 a 8 12 b a 12 8 a b 2 12 8 i b a 2 12 8 i b a 8 12 8 11 g b a i Run through the above example to see how Prim’s algorithm works on it: Vertex c has been chosen as a starting point. 26 10 12 3 1 6 11 2 7 3 5 9 9 a b d c e f h g i 8 8 (c, f) : chosen root (e, f) : chosen (f, h) : chosen (d, h) : chosen

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10 a 8 12 b a 12 8 a b 2 12 8 i b a 2 12 8 i b a 8 12 8 11 g b a i Run through the above example to see how Prim’s algorithm works on it: Vertex c has been chosen as a starting point. 26 10 12 3 1 6 11 2 7 3 5 9 9 a b d c e f h g i 8 8 (c, f) : chosen root (e, f) : chosen (f, h) : chosen (d, h) : chosen (d, g) : chosen

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10 a 8 12 b a 12 8 a b 2 12 8 i b a 2 12 8 i b a Run through the above example to see how Prim’s algorithm works on it: Vertex c has been chosen as a starting point. 26 10 12 3 1 6 11 2 7 3 5 9 9 a b d c e f h g i 8 8 (c, f) : chosen root (e, f) : chosen (f, h) : chosen (d, h) : chosen (d, g) : chosen

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10 a 8 12 b a 12 8 a b 2 12 8 i b a Run through the above example to see how Prim’s algorithm works on it: Vertex c has been chosen as a starting point. 26 10 12 3 1 6 11 2 7 3 5 9 9 a b d c e f h g i 8 8 (c, f) : chosen root (e, f) : chosen (f, h) : chosen (d, h) : chosen (d, g) : chosen

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10 a 8 12 b a 12 8 a b 2 12 8 i b a Run through the above example to see how Prim’s algorithm works on it: Vertex c has been chosen as a starting point. 26 10 12 3 1 6 11 2 7 3 5 9 9 a b d c e f h g i 8 8 (c, f) : chosen root (e, f) : chosen (f, h) : chosen (d, h) : chosen (d, g) : chosen (g, i) : chosen

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10 a 8 12 b a 12 8 a b Run through the above example to see how Prim’s algorithm works on it: Vertex c has been chosen as a starting point. 26 10 12 3 1 6 11 2 7 3 5 9 9 a b d c e f h g i 8 8 (c, f) : chosen root (e, f) : chosen (f, h) : chosen (d, h) : chosen (d, g) : chosen (g, i) : chosen

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10 a 8 12 b a Run through the above example to see how Prim’s algorithm works on it: Vertex c has been chosen as a starting point. 26 10 12 3 1 6 11 2 7 3 5 9 9 a b d c e f h g i 8 8 (c, f) : chosen root (e, f) : chosen (f, h) : chosen (d, h) : chosen (d, g) : chosen (g, i) : chosen

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10 a 8 12 b a Run through the above example to see how Prim’s algorithm works on it: Vertex c has been chosen as a starting point. 26 10 12 3 1 6 11 2 7 3 5 9 9 a b d c e f h g i 8 8 (c, f) : chosen root (e, f) : chosen (f, h) : chosen (d, h) : chosen (d, g) : chosen (g, i) : chosen (b, d) : chosen

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10 a Run through the above example to see how Prim’s algorithm works on it: Vertex c has been chosen as a starting point. 26 10 12 3 1 6 11 2 7 3 5 9 9 a b d c e f h g i 8 8 (c, f) : chosen root (e, f) : chosen (f, h) : chosen (d, h) : chosen (d, g) : chosen (g, i) : chosen (b, d) : chosen

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10 a Run through the above example to see how Prim’s algorithm works on it: Vertex c has been chosen as a starting point. 26 10 12 3 1 6 11 2 7 3 5 9 9 a b d c e f h g i 8 8 (c, f) : chosen root (e, f) : chosen (f, h) : chosen (d, h) : chosen (d, g) : chosen (g, i) : chosen (b, d) : chosen (a, b) : chosen

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Run through the above example to see how Prim’s algorithm works on it: Vertex c has been chosen as a starting point. 26 10 12 3 1 6 11 2 7 3 5 9 9 a b d c e f h g i 8 8 (c, f) : chosen root (e, f) : chosen (f, h) : chosen (d, h) : chosen (d, g) : chosen (g, i) : chosen (b, d) : chosen (a, b) : chosen

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27 Analysis Depends on how the priority queue is implemented: Suppose Q is a binary heap. Initialize Q and first for loop: O(V lg V) Decrease key of r: O(lg V) while loop: |V| EXTRACT-MIN calls  O(V lg V)  |E| DECREASE-KEY calls  O(E lg E) Total: O(E lgV)

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28 Suppose we could do DECREASE-KEY in O(1) amortized time. Then  |E| DECREASE-KEY calls take O(E) time altogether  total time becomes O(V lg V + E) In fact, there is a way to do DECREASE-KEY in O(1) amortized time: Fibonacci heaps, in chapter20.