Exoplanets - Speaker Deck

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Exoplanets Fran Bartolić Petnica Summer School on Astrophysics fbartolic © NASA Kepler

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About me • PhD student in data-intensive astronomy at the University of St Andrews in Scotland • I’m interested in probabilistic modelling of astrophysical data !2 © Rising View

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Overview of the lectures Lecture 1 (Today) • General introduction to exoplanet science • The two-body problem and planetary dynamics (whiteboard) Lecture 2 (Tomorrow) • Hands on Python exercises on N-body simulations Lecture 3 (Monday) • A (very) brief intro to Bayesian data analysis • Hands on Python exercises on ﬁtting an exoplanet transit light curve with MCMC !3

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Outline of this lecture 1. The Solar System 2. Detection Methods 3. Observed population of exoplanets 4. Planet Formation 5. Exoplanet atmospheres 6. Habitability !4

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The Solar System • 8 planets, 5 dwarf planets (Ceres, Pluto, Eris, Makemake, Haumea) • TNOs, asteroids, comets, meteorites and dust • Rocky inner planets, gaseous outer planets • 4.5B years old (radioactive dating of rocks) • Mostly co-planar circular orbits • of mass in the Sun • of angular momentum in the planets • Dynamically full > 99 % > 99 % !5 © Duncan Forgan

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The Solar System - Resonances • Mean motion resonances occur when two bodies have near-integer period ratios where are integers • Galilean moons are in a 4:2:1 resonance • Neptune and Pluto in a 3:2 resonance • Resonances in the asteroid belt - Kirkwood gaps • Resonant conﬁgurations a priori unlikely P2 P1 ≈ p q p, q !6

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The Solar System - Formation • Orbits circular and co-planar, spin and orbital angular momentum vectors mostly aligned • Inner terrestrial planets • Small, dense, made of rocks and metals, warm • Outer gaseous planets • Larger and more massive, made of mostly Hydrogen and Helium, cool • These characteristics point to formation in a disc of dust and gas • Terrestrial planets formed in inner parts of the disc where it’s too for ices to form • Gas giants formed further out !7

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The Solar System - Planet Nine • Orbits of a few distant Kuiper Belt objects beyond cluster in an unexpected way • Several people, most notably Batygin & Brown (2016) proposed a distant massive planet beyond Neptune to explain the clustering • “Planet Nine” is estimated to be 5-10 Earth masses, orbiting at 650-700 AU in an eccentric orbit • No observational evidence as of yet, if it exists it’s likely very cool and dim hence diﬃcult to spot > 250 AU !8 Batygin & Morbidelli 2017

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Beyond the Solar System !9

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What is an exoplanet? !10

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!11

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!12 Not an exoplanet

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An Exoplanet !13

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History of exoplanet discovery • First conﬁrmed exoplanet PSR B1257+12 discovered in 1992, orbiting a Neutron star! • First planet orbiting a Sun- like star, 51 Pegasi b, discovered in 1995 • exoplanets known today > 4000 !14 © Hugh Osborne

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We search for exoplanets by looking at stars instead !15

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Exoplanet detection methods Measuring ﬂux from target star(s) • Transits • Gravitational microlensing Measuring the motion of the star(s) • Radial velocity • Astrometry • Transit timing variations Direct detection • Direct imaging !16

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!17 © Michael Perryman

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Exoplanet detection - Transits • Periodic eclipses of the target star • Change in ﬂux • Transit probability • Need to measure repeated transits to conﬁrm planet • Transits give you the planet radius but not the mass ΔF ∝ (Rp /R* )2 ∝ (R* /a) Rp !18

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NASA Kepler mission • Space telescope designed to monitor brightness of ~200k stars every ~30min • Operational 2009 – 2018 • Discovered ~2600 planets • Designed with the goal of answering the question of how common are Earth size planets !19 © NASA

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Needle in a haystack !22 Pearson et. al. 2017

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!23 Explore Kepler data using Python

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The Trappist-1 system !24 • System of 7(!) transiting exoplanets orbiting a Red Dwarf at a distance of only 39 light years • All planets roughly Earth mass or less • Several planets in the habitable zone • All planets form a resonant chain!

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Radial velocity • Reﬂex motion of the star causes a Doppler shift in spectral lines • RV semi-amplitude: • Variations typically on the order of (!) • Ultra high resolution spectroscopy needed -> bias towards bright stars vr ≈ c Δλ λem K = ( 2πG P ) 1/3 Mp sin i (M⋆ + Mp) 2/3 1 (1 − e2) 1/2 m/s !27

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Radial velocity !28

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Direct Imaging • Taking pictures of exoplanets • Planet star ﬂux ratio in the range of • Major challenge is to separate light from star vs. light from planet • Biased towards massive planets on very wide orbits fp /f* 10−10 − 10−5 !29

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Observed exoplanets - Masses and orbits • Lots missing from this plot • Majority of observed exoplanets like those in our Solar System • “Hot Jupiters” easiest to detect but only ~1% of stars have them • “Super Earths” observed in 30-50% of all systems !30

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Observed exoplanets - Eccentricities • Absence of very high eccentricity planets among multi planet systems • Giant planets around metal rich stars more eccentric than those around metal poor stars • Smaller planets tend to have lower eccentricities • Eccentricity distribution explained well by long term dynamical simulations !31

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Observed exoplanets - Stellar metallicity • Giant ( ) gaseous planets found predominately around metal-rich stars • Supports core accretion theory of planet formation > 1 MJ !32 Adibekyan 2019

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Observed exoplanets - Interior structure • Combining radial velocity and transit observations gives us estimate of mean density • Plot shows mass-radius diagram for low mass planets ( ) • Measure of mean density degenerate with respect to models of internal structure Mp < 20 M⊕ !33 Lissauer et. al. 2014

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Planet Formation - Observations !34 © ESO ? Planet formation © Bucky Harris

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Star formation !35 Casasola 2008 Dark cloud cores Gravitational collapse t = 0 yr Protostar, embedded in ~80000 AU envelope t = 104 − 105 yr T Tauri star, disc, outﬂow t = 105 − 106 yr Pre main-sequence star, remnant disc t = 106 − 107 yr Main-sequence star Planetary system(?) t > 107

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Two models of planet formation • Gravitational instability (top down) • Parts of disc collapse under its own gravity • Fast formation on timescales of years • Can’t really explain terrestrial planet formation • Core accretion (bottom up) • Collisional growth from sub-micron dust particles to km sized planetesimals and cores of planets • Longer timescales ( years) • Does a decent job at explaining terrestrial as well as gas giant formation 103 ∼ 106 !36 Lufkin et. Al. Jurgen Blum

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Planet formation - Phases 1. Dust grains to planetesimals • μm grains cm sized pebbles - Van der Waals forces make grains stick • cm sized pebbles km sized planetesimals - pebble accretion?? 2. Planetesimals to protoplanets • km sized planetesimals km sized protoplanets - gravity 3. Protoplanets to planets • Terrestrial planets grow by collisional evolution • Gas giants accrete gas envelope onto a rocky core 4. Planets migrate in discs! → → → ∼ 103 !37

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Exoplanet atmospheres !38 Wakeford et. al. 2017 Challenge: how to infer element and molecular abundances from the spectra?

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Mapping surfaces of exoplanets • To resolve Earth sized planet at 10pc, we need an optical telescope (or multiple telescopes) ~24km across - not feasible • As long as we don’t always see the same parts of the planet’s surface and the surface is inhomogenous, in principle we can extract the information on surface features from integrated light - “exocartography” • Rotations, orbital motion and occultations expose diﬀerent surface features !39 Cowan & Fujii 2017 Demory et. al. 2016

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Map of the hot Jupiter HD 189733b !40 Majeau et. al. 2012

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Do it yourself using starry! !41

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Mapping the surface of Earth !42 Data (reﬂected light) Inferred map Luger et. al. 2019

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Astrobiology and the search for life • Habitable zone is loosely deﬁned as region in orbital space where liquid water can exist !43 Seager 2013

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Summary !44 • Planetary systems are ubiquitous, they readily form around all kinds of stars (even binary and neutron stars) • Most planetary systems are very diﬀerent from our own Solar System • Earth sized planets are common! • Lots of unanswered questions in planet formation (need input from planetary sciences, chemistry, star formation…) • Characterizing exoplanet atmospheres and mapping surfaces possible in some cases • We don’t know what conditions are required for a “habitable” planet

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Additional reading !45

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Additional slides !46

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Observed exoplanets - orbital periods • Period gap in range 10-100 days for observed giant planets • Possible explanation is a stopping mechanism in the protoplanetary disc !47

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Observed exoplanets - radii • Very few planets with radii in the range of 1.5-2.0 Earth radii • Mass loss timescale for evaporation peaks for planets with H/He envelope mass of order a few percent • Photoevaporation then gives rise to bimodal radius distribution peaking at naked core size and twice its value !48

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Exomoons !49 Exomoon?