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Increasing the Comparability of Linguistic Data Johann-Mattis List Department of Linguistic and Cultural Evolution Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History Jena 2017/02/24 1 / 37

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Prolog Prolog 2 / 37

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Prolog Juggling 3 / 37

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Prolog Juggling 3 / 37

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Prolog Juggling 3 / 37

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Prolog Moral of the Story Restricting our perspective by modeling and for- malizing the phenomena we are dealing with may actually open our eyes for details we had disregarded before. 4 / 37

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Problems Problems 5 / 37

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Problems General Data Problem in Linguistics 6 / 37

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Problems General Data Problem in Linguistics Linguists face very complex problems in their research. But they tend to overemphasize the complexity of their problems. As a result, they refuse to handle even the things which could be easily handled. Instead of “Yes, we can!”, lin- guists tend to say “Can we really?” 6 / 37

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Problems General Data Problem in Linguistics → application of methods → representation of results → replication of analyses 6 / 37

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Problems Application Application 7 / 37

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Problems Application Application 7 / 37

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Problems Representation Representation 8 / 37

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Problems Representation Representation Frucht, ferner fruchten, befruchten, Befruchtung, fruchtbar, fruchtig Frucht f. ‘der Fortpflanzung der eigenen Art dienendes Produkt einer Pflanze’, auch ‘ungeborenes Lebewesen’, übertragen ‘Ertrag’, ahd. fruht (9. Jh.), mhd. vruht, asächs. fruht, mnd. mnl. nl. vrucht beruhen auf einer frühen Entlehnung von gleichbed. lat. frūctus, abgeleitet vom Verb lat. fruī (frūctus sum) ‘genießen, Nutzen ziehen’ (verwandt mit brauchen, s. d.). Das Deminutiv Früchtchen hat die spezielle Bedeutung [...] German "Frucht" in Pfei�er (1993, also at http://dwds.de) 8 / 37

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Problems Representation Representation Frucht, ferner fruchten, befruchten, Befruchtung, fruchtbar, fruchtig Frucht f. ‘der Fortpflanzung der eigenen Art dienendes Produkt einer Pflanze’, auch ‘ungeborenes Lebewesen’, übertragen ‘Ertrag’, ahd. fruht (9. Jh.), mhd. vruht, asächs. fruht, mnd. mnl. nl. vrucht beruhen auf einer frühen Entlehnung von gleichbed. lat. frūctus, abgeleitet vom Verb lat. fruī (frūctus sum) ‘genießen, Nutzen ziehen’ (verwandt mit brauchen, s. d.). Das Deminutiv Früchtchen hat die spezielle Bedeutung [...] German "Frucht" in Pfei�er (1993, also at http://dwds.de 8 / 37

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Problems Representation Representation Frucht, ferner fruchten, befruchten, Befruchtung, fruchtbar, fruchtig Frucht f. ‘der Fortpflanzung der eigenen Art dienendes Produkt einer Pflanze’, auch ‘ungeborenes Lebewesen’, übertragen ‘Ertrag’, ahd. fruht (9. Jh.), mhd. vruht, asächs. fruht, mnd. mnl. nl. vrucht beruhen auf einer frühen Entlehnung von gleichbed. lat. frūctus, abgeleitet vom Verb lat. fruī (frūctus sum) ‘genießen, Nutzen ziehen’ (verwandt mit brauchen, s. d.). Das Deminutiv Früchtchen hat die spezielle Bedeutung [...] inherited from borrowed from derived from PIE *bhreu◌◌̯ Hg◌ ◌ ̑ - “to use” PIE *bhruHg◌ ◌ ̑ -ié- “to use” (present tense) PGM *ƀrūkan- “to use” OHG brūhhan “to use” G brauchen “to use” G Brauch “custom” OHG fruht “profit, fruit” G frugal “modest (food)” Fr fruit “profit,fruit” Fr frugal “modest (food)” Lt fruor, fruī “I enjoy” Lt frūctus “profit” Lt frux “fruit, grain” Lt frugalis “bring profit” Adapted from an Illustration by Hans Geisler (University Düsseldorf) German "Frucht" in Pfei�er (1993, also at http://dwds.de 8 / 37

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Problems Representation Representation Entry for PIE *kʷetware in Tower of Babel (http://starling.rinet.ru) 8 / 37

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Problems Representation Representation Insufficiencies of Data Representation data in “textual form” (impossible to search it efficiently) no standardized phonetic representations no standardized glosses for meanings no standardized names or abbreviations for language and dialect names no standardized representation of sound correspondences no standardized assignment of cognate sets and borrowings ... 9 / 37

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Problems Replication Replication 10 / 37

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Problems Replication Replication Gloss Blust Pawley Distance “day” *qaco *qaco 0 “to spit” *qanusi *qanusi 0 “person” *taumataq *tamwata 3 “to vomit” *mumutaq *mumuta 1 “name” *ŋajan *qajan 1 “snake” *mwata *mwata 0 “man” *mwa ruqane *taumwaqane 5 “four” *pani *pat 2 “one” *sakai *tasa 3 ... ... ... ... Disagreement between experts on PO reconstructions (Bouchard-Côté et al. 2014) 10 / 37

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Problems Replication Replication Reproducability Problems in Historical Linguistics Scholars disagree on many points in historical linguistics, be it the number of laryngeals, the position of Baltic and Slavic, or whether a given word was borrowed or not. We know well that no two etymological dictionaries for the same language or language families are completely identi- cal. Unfortunately, we lack a rigorous check to which de- gree experts actually agree or disagree in their judgments. We also lack methods for evaluation which would help us to show to which degree a given hypothesis (a reconstruction, a family tree, or an etymology) corresponds with our linguis- tic data. 10 / 37

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Increasing Comparability Increasing Comparability 11 / 37

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Increasing Comparability Formats Cross-Linguistic Data Formats 12 / 37

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Increasing Comparability Formats Cross-Linguistic Data Formats Key Aspects of CLDF use CSV (comma-separated values) as a basic format for tabular data use JSON (key-value data-format) for meta-data define how standard columns of the data (languages/doculects, concepts, transcriptions, grammatical features, etc.) should be treated provide an API that checks the consistency of datasets provide sample datasets that illustrate the data format provide applications which handle CLDF (for example, in automatic analyses) 13 / 37

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Increasing Comparability Standards Standards for Word Lists and Lexical Data 14 / 37

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Increasing Comparability Standards Standards for Word Lists and Lexical Data 14 / 37

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Increasing Comparability Standards Word Lists and Lexical Data Word Lists in CLDF define each row as a word indicate the language in which this word is spoken in one column indicate the meaning in another column provide information on the form in additional columns 15 / 37

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Increasing Comparability Standards Standards for Word Lists and Lexical Data ID DOCULECT CONCEPT ... 1 German Woldemort valdəmar ... 2 English Woldemort wɔldəmɔrt ... 3 Chinese Woldemort fu⁵¹ti⁵¹mɔ³⁵ ... 4 Russian Woldemort vladimir ... ... ... ... ... ... 10 German Harry haralt ... 11 English Harry hæri ... 12 Russian Harry gali ... ... ... ... ... ... TRANSCRIPTION 16 / 37

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Increasing Comparability Applications Applications The CLDF Python API (Forkel et al. 2016) simplifies the handling and the testing of data sets in CLDF format. With help of the API and its extensions, scholars can test whether the data conforms to the format. With additional software which is mostly already available, one can further easily draw statistics from the data. Last not least, tools which handle CLDF data can be used for automatic analysis (LingPy, List and Forkel 2016, http://lingpy.org) or for manual cu- ration (EDICTOR, List 2017, http://edictor.digling.org). 17 / 37

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Increasing Comparability Applications Applications 18 / 37

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Examples Examples 19 / 37

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Examples Concepticon Concepticon Concept List # Items Concept Label Concept ID Allen (2007) 500 animal oil; 动物油(脂肪) GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID: 3232) Gregersen (1976) 217 fat-grease*fat-grease GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID: 3232) Heggarty (2005) 150 fat (grease); grasa GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID: 3232) Swadesh (1955) 100 fat (grease) GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID: 3232) Alpher and Nash (1999) 151 fat, grease GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID: 3232) Hale (1961) 100 fat, grease GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID: 3232) OGrady and Klokeid (1969) 100 fat, grease GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID: 3232) Blust (2008) 210 fat/grease GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID: 3232) Matisoff (1978) 200 fat/grease GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID: 3232) Samarin (1969) 218 fat/grease GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID: 3232) Dunn et al. (2012) 207 fat GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID: 3232) Swadesh (1950) 215 fat GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID: 3232) Zgraggen (1980) 380 fat GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID: 3232) Jachontov (1991) 100 fat n. GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID: 3232) Wiktionary (2003) 207 fat (noun) GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID: 3232) Starostin (1991) 110 fat n.; жир GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID: 3232) TeilDautrey et al. (2008) 430 fat, oil GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID: 3232) Swadesh (1952) 200 fat (organic substance) GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID: 3232) Shiro (1973) 200 grease (fat) GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID: 3232) Samarin (1969) 100 grease; graisse; Fett; grasa GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID: 3232) Wang (2006) 200 pig oil; 猪油 GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID: 3232) Haspelmath and Tadmor (2009) 1460 the grease or fat GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID: 3232) 20 / 37

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Examples Concepticon Concepticon Concept List # Items Concept Label Concept ID Allen (2007) 500 animal oil; 动物油(脂肪) GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID: 3232) Gregersen (1976) 217 fat-grease*fat-grease GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID: 3232) Heggarty (2005) 150 fat (grease); grasa GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID: 3232) Swadesh (1955) 100 fat (grease) GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID: 3232) Alpher and Nash (1999) 151 fat, grease GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID: 3232) Hale (1961) 100 fat, grease GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID: 3232) OGrady and Klokeid (1969) 100 fat, grease GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID: 3232) Blust (2008) 210 fat/grease GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID: 3232) Matisoff (1978) 200 fat/grease GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID: 3232) Samarin (1969) 218 fat/grease GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID: 3232) Dunn et al. (2012) 207 fat GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID: 3232) Swadesh (1950) 215 fat GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID: 3232) Zgraggen (1980) 380 fat GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID: 3232) Jachontov (1991) 100 fat n. GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID: 3232) Wiktionary (2003) 207 fat (noun) GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID: 3232) Starostin (1991) 110 fat n.; жир GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID: 3232) TeilDautrey et al. (2008) 430 fat, oil GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID: 3232) Swadesh (1952) 200 fat (organic substance) GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID: 3232) Shiro (1973) 200 grease (fat) GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID: 3232) Samarin (1969) 100 grease; graisse; Fett; grasa GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID: 3232) Wang (2006) 200 pig oil; 猪油 GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID: 3232) Haspelmath and Tadmor (2009) 1460 the grease or fat GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID: 3232) Concept labels for “GREASE” in 22 different concept lists (see List et al. 2015, online at http://concepticon.clld.org) 20 / 37

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Examples Concepticon Concepticon Concept labels for “GREASE” in 22 different concept lists (see List et al. 2015, online at http://concepticon.clld.org) Concept List # Items Concept Label Concept ID Allen (2007) 500 animal oil; 动物油(脂肪) GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID:323) Gregersen (1976) 217 fat-grease*fat-grease GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID:323) Heggarty (2005) 150 fat (grease); grasa GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID:323) Swadesh (1955) 100 fat (grease) GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID:323) Alpher and Nash (1999) 151 fat, grease GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID:323) Hale (1961) 100 fat, grease GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID:323) OGrady and Klokeid (1969) 100 fat, grease GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID:323) Blust (2008) 210 fat/grease GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID:323) Matisoff (1978) 200 fat/grease GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID:323) Samarin (1969) 218 fat/grease GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID:323) Dunn et al. (2012) 207 fat GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID:323) Swadesh (1950) 215 fat GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID:323) Zgraggen (1980) 380 fat GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID:323) Jachontov (1991) 100 fat n. GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID:323) Wiktionary (2003) 207 fat (noun) GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID:323) Starostin (1991) 110 fat n.; жир GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID:323) TeilDautrey et al. (2008) 430 fat, oil GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID:323) Swadesh (1952) 200 fat (organic substance) GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID:323) Shiro (1973) 200 grease (fat) GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID:323) Samarin (1969) 100 grease; graisse; Fett; grasa GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID:323) Wang (2006) 200 pig oil; 猪油 GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID:323) Haspelmath and Tadmor (2009) 1460 the grease or fat GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID:323) 20 / 37

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Examples Concepticon Concepticon Concept labels for “GREASE” in 22 different concept lists (see List et al. 2015, online at http://concepticon.clld.org) Concept List # Items Concept Label Concept ID Allen (2007) 500 animal oil; 动物油(脂肪) GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID:323) Gregersen (1976) 217 fat-grease*fat-grease GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID:323) Heggarty (2005) 150 fat (grease); grasa GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID:323) Swadesh (1955) 100 fat (grease) GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID:323) Alpher and Nash (1999) 151 fat, grease GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID:323) Hale (1961) 100 fat, grease GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID:323) OGrady and Klokeid (1969) 100 fat, grease GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID:323) Blust (2008) 210 fat/grease GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID:323) Matisoff (1978) 200 fat/grease GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID:323) Samarin (1969) 218 fat/grease GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID:323) Dunn et al. (2012) 207 fat GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID:323) Swadesh (1950) 215 fat GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID:323) Zgraggen (1980) 380 fat GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID:323) Jachontov (1991) 100 fat n. GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID:323) Wiktionary (2003) 207 fat (noun) GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID:323) Starostin (1991) 110 fat n.; жир GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID:323) TeilDautrey et al. (2008) 430 fat, oil GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID:323) Swadesh (1952) 200 fat (organic substance) GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID:323) Shiro (1973) 200 grease (fat) GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID:323) Samarin (1969) 100 grease; graisse; Fett; grasa GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID:323) Wang (2006) 200 pig oil; 猪油 GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID:323) Haspelmath and Tadmor (2009) 1460 the grease or fat GREASE (CONCEPTICON-ID:323) 20 / 37

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Examples Concepticon Concepticon Concepticon (List et al. 2016) link concept labels in published concept lists (questionnaires) to concept sets link concept sets to meta-data define relations between concept sets never link one concept in a given list to more than one concept set (guarantees consistency) provide an API to check the consistency of the data and to query the data provide a web-interface to browse through the data 21 / 37

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Examples Concepticon Concepticon STONE EGG FOOT THE STONE THE EGG THE LEG STONE (FRUIT) EGG (CHICKEN) FOOT/LEG STONE EGG LEG FOOT http://concepticon.clld.org 22 / 37

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Examples Concepticon Concepticon CONCEPT SET CONCEPT CONCEPT LIST CONCEPT LABEL COMPILER SOURCE NOTE CONCEPT LABEL CONCEPT LABEL CONCEPT LABEL CONCEPT SET CONCEPT SET 22 / 37

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Examples Concepticon Concepticon http://concepticon.clld.org 23 / 37

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Examples CLICS CLICS Semantic change plays a crucial role in language change. Although most linguists assume that it proceeds according to certain general patterns, we currently lack the empirical basis to pursue the question in depth. Normally, semantic change proceeds by cumulation and reduction. 24 / 37

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Examples CLICS CLICS German “head” Kopf . k ɔ p͡f Pre-German “head” *kop – k ɔ p “vessel” Proto- Germanic *kuppa- k u pː a “vessel” POLYSEMY PHASE FORM MEANING MONOSEMY PHASE MONOSEMY PHASE CUMULATION REDUCTION 24 / 37

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Examples CLICS CLICS “cup” CONTEST TROPHY [kʌp] CUP English polysemy structure for cup 24 / 37

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Examples CLICS CLICS “head, cup” CUP HEAD [kɔp] TOP Dutch polysemy structure for kop 24 / 37

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Examples CLICS CLICS “head” HEAD TOP [kɔp͡f] CHIEF German polysemy structure for Kopf 24 / 37

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Examples CLICS CLICS Key Concept Russian German ... 1.1 world mir, svet Welt ... 1.21 earth, land zemlja Erde, Land ... 1.212 ground, soil počva Erde, Boden ... 1.420 tree derevo Baum ... 1.430 wood derevo Wald ... ... ... ... ... ... 25 / 37

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Examples CLICS CLICS CLICS: Crosslinguistic Colexifications - 221 Languages - 64 language families - 1280 concepts - 301,498 words - 45,667 polysemies (colexifications) - 16,239 different links between concepts - http://clics.lingpy.org 25 / 37

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Examples CLICS CLICS 684 678 871 1043 6 30 129 196 1243 128 869 853 650 344 1103 150 185 627 232 709 1035 1206 177 97 311 496 606 137 207 444 840 1077 325 222 1063 1138 1204 1258 559 723 495 766 914 38 1101 652 865 891 872 633 291 980 700 144 410 430 1025 406 464 787 622 131 242 918 275 1159 99 1174 671 1038 786 705 641 760 1259 356 391 197 10 214 299 63 191 619 644 792 1205 897 67 1231 213 226 747 681 399 841 439 773 123 800 16 1067 1227 696 417 550 68 76 108 360 1244 339 500 81 867 79 1097 98 96 833 771 715 455 380 1268 1186 1046 39 252 1228 66 23 1112 133 676 336 739 1150 1071 986 485 112 372 1109 830 721 1053 1057 601 573 556 527 1248 614 488 908 499 1002 309 442 814 1193 569 458 258 563 653 682 774 70 1151 948 801 1082 243 47 71 83 153 1265 934 85 1215 1199 523 581 422 21 358 1261 111 354 219 759 15 890 261 1222 141 158 74 806 1031 845 770 850 903 1224 419 754 433 798 188 1256 613 528 208 539 323 981 132 1055 1001 790 804 844 1118 907 640 446 815 923 498 201 1184 578 566 427 532 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Examples CLICS CLICS Concept "money" is part of a cluster with the central concept "fishscale" with a total of 10 nodes. Hover over forms for each link. Click on the forms to check their sources. Click HERE to export the current network. ty: Line weights: Coloring: Family silver leather fishscale bark coin fur snail skin, hide money shell 49 links for "silver" and "money": Language Family Form 1. Ignaciano Arawakan ne 2. Aymara, Central Aymaran ḳulʸḳi 3. Tsafiki Barbacoan kaˈla 4. Seselwa Creole French Creole larzan 5. Miao, White Hmong-Mien nyiaj 6. Breton Indo-European arhant 7. French Indo-European argent 8. Gaelic, Irish Indo-European airgead 9. Welsh Indo-European arian 10. Cofán Isolate koriΦĩʔdi 25 / 37

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Examples CLICS CLICS Concept "wheel" is part of a cluster with the central concept "leg" with a total of 11 nodes. Hover over the e each link. Click on the forms to check their sources. Click HERE to export the current network. ity: Line weights: Coloring: Geolocation sphere, ball round footprint foot calf of leg circle thigh wheel leg hip buttocks 6 links for "foot" and "wheel": Language Family Form 1. Cofán Isolate c̷ɨʔtʰe 2. Puinave Isolate sim 3. Yaminahua Panoan taɨ 4. Wayampi Tupi pɨ 5. Pumé Unclassified taɔ 6. Ninam Yanomam mãhuk 25 / 37

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Examples CLICS CLICS http://clics.lingpy.org 26 / 37

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Examples LingPy and EDICTOR LingPy and EDICTOR LingPy http://lingpy.org EDICTOR http://tsv.lingpy.org 27 / 37

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Examples LingPy and EDICTOR LingPy LingPy (List and Forkel 2016) Python library for quantitative tasks in historical linguistics automatic phonetic alignment automatic cognate detection automatic handling of segmentation automatic search for colexifications 28 / 37

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Examples LingPy and EDICTOR LingPy http://lingpy.org 29 / 37

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Examples LingPy and EDICTOR EDICTOR EDICTOR (List 2017) web-based tool for data curation and analysis alignment editor cognate set editor morpheme structure annotation 30 / 37

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Examples LingPy and EDICTOR EDICTOR http://edictor.digling.org 31 / 37

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Examples Cross-Linguistic Phonetic Alphabet Cross-Linguistic Phonetic Alphabet The use of the standards recommended by the IPA are widely varying in linguistics. Experts on language families often have their own traditions, humans necessarily com- mit errors when transcribing data, technical confusions arise from the usage of lookalike symbols which do not share the same code point, and scholars interpret the IPA differently. Furthermore, the IPA does not offer recommendations for all aspects of transcription: morphological annotation, for ex- ample is not included and varies greatly among scholars. 32 / 37

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Examples Cross-Linguistic Phonetic Alphabet Cross-Linguisic Phonetic Alphabet CLPA (List and Forkel, in prep.) define standards for phonetic representation provide meta-data for standardized sounds (feature matrices, etc.) provide an API that allows to query the data and check the consistency of transcriptions with regard to CLPA provide solutions for scholars to convert their data to CLPA develop standards for phonotactic and morphological annotation 33 / 37

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Examples Cross-Linguistic Phonetic Alphabet Cross-Linguistic Phonetic Alphabet http://glottobank.org/clpa/clpa.html 34 / 37

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Outlook Outlook Outlook 35 / 37

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Outlook 36 / 37

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Outlook 36 / 37

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Outlook 36 / 37

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Outlook Thank you for listening! 37 / 37