Similarities and Differences between Evolutionary Processes in Linguistics and Biology Johann-Mattis List DFG research fellow Centre des recherches linguistiques sur l’Asie Orientale Team Adaptation, Integration, Reticulation, Evolution EHESS and UPMC, Paris 2015/05/27 1 / 45

Languages 语言 language 1 язык språk 1 Languages 2 / 45

Languages What is a Language? What is a Language? Norwegian, Swedish, and Danish are different languages . . Běijīng-Chinese, Shànghǎi-Chinese und Hakka-Chinese are dialects of the same language 3 / 45

Languages What is a Language? What is a Language? Běijīng Chinese 1 iou²¹ i⁵⁵ xuei³⁵ pei²¹fəŋ⁵⁵ kən⁵⁵ tʰai⁵¹iaŋ¹¹ t͡ʂəŋ⁵⁵ ʦai⁵³ naɚ⁵¹ t͡ʂəŋ⁵⁵luən⁵¹ Hakka Chinese 1 iu³³ it⁵⁵ pai³³a¹¹ pet³³fuŋ³³ tʰuŋ¹¹ ɲit¹¹tʰeu¹¹ hɔk³³ e⁵³ au⁵⁵ Shànghǎi Chinese 1 ɦi²² tʰɑ̃⁵⁵ ʦɿ²¹ poʔ³foŋ⁴⁴ taʔ⁵ tʰa³³ɦiã⁴⁴ ʦəŋ³³ hɔ⁴⁴ ləʔ¹lə²³ʦa⁵³ Běijīng Chinese 2 ʂei³⁵ də⁵⁵ pən³⁵ liŋ²¹ ta⁵¹ Hakka Chinese 2 man³³ ɲin¹¹ kʷɔ⁵⁵ vɔi⁵³ Shànghǎi Chinese 2 sa³³ ɲiŋ⁵⁵ ɦəʔ²¹ pəŋ³³ zɿ⁴⁴ du¹³ Norwegian 1 nuːɾɑʋinˑn̩ ɔ suːln̩ kɾɑŋlət ɔm Swedish 1 nuːɖanvɪndən ɔ suːlən tv̥ɪstadə ən gɔŋ ɔm Danish 1 noʌ̯ʌnvenˀn̩ ʌ soːl̩ˀn kʰʌm eŋg̊ɑŋ i sd̥ʁiðˀ ʌmˀ Norwegian 2 ʋem ɑ dem sɱ̩ ʋɑː ɖɳ̩ stæɾ̥kəstə Swedish 2 vɛm ɑv dɔm sɔm vɑ staɹkast Danish 2 vɛmˀ a b̥m̩ d̥ vɑ d̥n̩ sd̥æʌ̯g̊əsd̥ə 4 / 45

Languages What is a Language? What is a Language? From the perspective of the lexicon and the sound system, the Chinese dialects are at least as diverse as the Scandinavian languages 4 / 45

Languages Language as a Diasystem Language as a Diasystem Languages are complex aggregates of different linguistic systems which “coexist and mutually influence each other” (Coseriu 1973: 40, my translation). . . 5 / 45

Languages Language as a Diasystem Language as a Diasystem Standard Language Diatopic Varieties Diastratic Varieties Diaphasic Varieties 5 / 45

Languages Language Variation Language Variation: Dimensions LANGUAGE 6 / 45

Languages Language Variation Language Variation: Dimensions LANGUAGE diatopic place 6 / 45

Languages Language Variation Language Variation: Dimensions LANGUAGE diastratic diatopic social layer place 6 / 45

Languages Language Variation Language Variation: Dimensions LANGUAGE diastratic diatopic diaphasic social layer place situation 6 / 45

Languages Language Variation Language Variation: Dimensions LANGUAGE diastratic diatopic diaphasic diam esic social layer place situation m edium 6 / 45

Languages Language Variation Language Variation: Dimensions LANGUAGE diachronic diastratic diatopic diaphasic diam esic time social layer place situation m edium 6 / 45

Languages Language Variation Language Variation: Dimensions LANGUAGE diachronic diastratic diatopic diaphasic diam esic 6 / 45

Languages Language Variation Language Variation: Complexity of Borrowing 7 / 45

Languages Language Variation Language Variation: Complexity of Borrowing expected Mandarin [ma₅₅po₂₁lou] 7 / 45

Languages Language Variation Language Variation: Complexity of Borrowing expected Mandarin [ma₅₅po₂₁lou] attested Mandarin [wan₅₁paw₂₁lu₅₁] 7 / 45

Languages Language Variation Language Variation: Complexity of Borrowing expected Mandarin [ma₅₅po₂₁lou] attested Mandarin [wan₅₁paw₂₁lu₅₁] explanation Cantonese [maːn₂₂pow₃₅low₃₂] 7 / 45

Languages Language Variation Language Variation: Complexity of Borrowing English Cantonese Mandarin maːlboʁo maːn22pow35low32 wan51paw21lu51 Proper Name “Road of 10 000 treasures” “Road of 10 000 treasures” 万宝路 8 / 45

Language History Language History 9 / 45

Language History Modeling Language History Modeling Language History: Dendrophilia August Schleicher (1821-1868) 10 / 45

Language History Modeling Language History Modeling Language History: Dendrophilia August Schleicher (1821-1868) “These assumptions, which follow logically from the results of our re- search, can be best illustrated by the image of a branching tree.” (Schle- icher 1853: 787) 10 / 45

Language History Modeling Language History Dendrophilia Schleicher (1853) 11 / 45

Language History Modeling Language History Modeling Language History: Dendrophobia Johannes Schmidt (1843-1901) 12 / 45

Language History Modeling Language History Modeling Language History: Dendrophobia Johannes Schmidt (1843-1901) “You can turn it as you want, but as long as you stick to the idea that the his- torically attested languages have been developing by multiple furcations of an ancestral language, that is, as long as you assume that there is a Stammbaum [family tree] of the Indo-European lan- guages, you will never be able to explain all facts which have been assembled in a scientifically satisfying way.” (Schmidt 1872: 17, my translation) 12 / 45

Language History Modeling Language History Modeling Language History: Dendrophobia Johannes Schmidt (1843-1901) “I want to replace [the tree] by the im- age of a wave that spreads out from the center in concentric circles be- coming weaker and weaker the far- ther they get away from the center.” (Schmidt 1872: 27, my translation) 13 / 45

Language History Modeling Language History Modeling Language History: Dendrophobia Schmidt (1875) 14 / 45

Language History Modeling Language History Modeling Language History: Dendrophobia Meillet (1908) Hirt (1905) Bloomfield (1933) Bonfante (1931) 15 / 45

Language History Lexical Change Lexical Change 'soh₂-wl̩- sh₂uˈen- SUN Indo-European 16 / 45

Language History Lexical Change Lexical Change 'soh₂-wl̩- sh₂uˈen- SUN Indo-European soːwel- sunːoː- SUN Germanic 16 / 45

Language History Lexical Change Lexical Change 'soh₂-wl̩- sh₂uˈen- SUN Indo-European soːwel- sunːoː- SUN Germanic zɔnə SUN German suːl SUN Swedish 16 / 45

Language History Lexical Change Lexical Change 'soh₂-wl̩- sh₂uˈen- SUN Indo-European soːwel- sunːoː- SUN Germanic soːl- SUN Romance zɔnə SUN German suːl SUN Swedish 16 / 45

Language History Lexical Change Lexical Change 'soh₂-wl̩- sh₂uˈen- SUN Indo-European soːwel- sunːoː- SUN Germanic soːl- SUN soːlikul- SMALL SUN Romance zɔnə SUN German suːl SUN Swedish 16 / 45

Language History Lexical Change Lexical Change 'soh₂-wl̩- sh₂uˈen- SUN Indo-European soːwel- sunːoː- SUN Germanic soːl- SUN soːlikul- SMALL SUN Romance solej SUN French sol SUN Spanish zɔnə SUN German suːl SUN Swedish 16 / 45

Language History Lexical Change Lexical Change 'soh₂-wl◌̩ - sh₂uˈen- SUN Indo-European soːwel- sunːoː- SUN Germanic soːl- SUN soːlikul- SMALL SUN Romance solej SUN French sol SUN Spanish zɔnə SUN German suːl SUN Swedish SEM ANTIC SHIFT M O RPH O LO G ICAL CH AN G E M O R PH O LO G ICA L CH A N G E MORPHOLOGICAL CHANGE MORPHOLOGICAL CHANGE 16 / 45

Language History Lexical Change Lexical Change arbre 17 / 45

Language History Lexical Change Lexical Change form "meaning" 17 / 45

Language History Lexical Change Lexical Change arbre 17 / 45

Language History Lexical Change Lexical Change 17 / 45

Language History Lexical Change Lexical Change arbre MEANING FORM LANGUAGE 17 / 45

Language History Lexical Change Lexical Change FORM LANGUAGE MEANING arbre 17 / 45

Language History Lexical Change Lexical Change arbre MEANING FORM LANGUAGE MEANING FORM LANGUAGE 17 / 45

Language History Lexical Change Lexical Change SEMANTIC CHANGE MORPHOLOGICAL CHANGE S T R A T IC C H A N G E Gévaudan (2007) 17 / 45

Language History Lexical Change Lexical Change kop Kopf Kopf köpfen World Cup Welt- ccup Old High German Standard German MORPHOLOGICAL CHANGE SEMANTIC CHANGE SEMANTIC CHANGE STRATIC CHANGE MORPHOLOGICAL CHANGE 17 / 45

Language History Sound Change Sound Change Meaning Latin Italian ‘FEATHER’ pluːma pjuma ‘FLAT’ plaːnus pjano ‘SQUARE’ plateːa pjaʦːa 18 / 45

Language History Sound Change Sound Change Meaning Latin Italian ‘FEATHER’ pluːma pjuma ‘FLAT’ plaːnus pjano ‘SQUARE’ plateːa pjaʦːa l > j 18 / 45

Language History Sound Change Sound Change Meaning Latin Italian ‘FEATHER’ pluːma pjuma ‘FLAT’ plaːnus pjano ‘SQUARE’ plateːa pjaʦːa Meaning Latin Italian ‘TONGUE’ liŋgua liŋgwa ‘MOON’ lu:na luna ‘SLOW’ lentus lento l > j 18 / 45

Language History Sound Change Sound Change Meaning Latin Italian ‘FEATHER’ pluːma pjuma ‘FLAT’ plaːnus pjano ‘SQUARE’ plateːa pjaʦːa Meaning Latin Italian ‘TONGUE’ liŋgua liŋgwa ‘MOON’ lu:na luna ‘SLOW’ lentus lento l > j l > l 18 / 45

Language History Sound Change Sound Change Meaning Latin Italian ‘FEATHER’ pluːma pjuma ‘FLAT’ plaːnus pjano ‘SQUARE’ plateːa pjaʦːa Meaning Latin Italian ‘TONGUE’ liŋgua liŋgwa ‘MOON’ lu:na luna ‘SLOW’ lentus lento l > j l > l l > j / p _ 18 / 45

Language History Sound Change Sound Change Meaning Latin Italian ‘FEATHER’ pluːma pjuma ‘FLAT’ plaːnus pjano ‘SQUARE’ plateːa pjaʦːa Meaning Latin Italian ‘TONGUE’ liŋgua liŋgwa ‘MOON’ lu:na luna ‘SLOW’ lentus lento l > j l > l l > j / p _ Not sounds change, sound systems change (Bloomfield 1933)! 18 / 45

Language History Sound Change Sound Change Meaning Latin Italian ‘FEATHER’ pluːma pjuma ‘FLAT’ plaːnus pjano ‘SQUARE’ plateːa pjaʦːa Meaning Latin Italian ‘TONGUE’ liŋgua liŋgwa ‘MOON’ lu:na luna ‘SLOW’ lentus lento l > j l > l l > j / p _ Not sounds change, sound systems change (Bloomfield 1933)! Sound change depends on the context in which the sounds occur! 18 / 45

Language History Sound Change Sound Change Cognate List Alignment Correspondence List German dünn d ʏ n GER ENG Frequ. d θ 2 x d d 1 x n n 1 x m m 1 x ŋ ŋ 1 x English thin θ ɪ n German Ding d ɪ ŋ English thing θ ɪ ŋ German dumm d ʊ m English dumb d ʌ m German Dorn d ɔɐ n English thorn d ɔː n 19 / 45

Language History Sound Change Sound Change Cognate List Alignment Correspondence List German dünn d ʏ n GER ENG Frequ. d θ 3 x d d 1 x n n 1 x m m 1 x ŋ ŋ 1 x English thin θ ɪ n German Ding d ɪ ŋ English thing θ ɪ ŋ German dumm d ʊ m English dumb d ʌ m German Dorn d ɔɐ n English thorn d ɔː n 19 / 45

Language History Sound Change Sound Change Cognate List Alignment Correspondence List German dünn d ʏ n GER ENG Frequ. d θ 3 x d d 1 x n n 1 x m m 1 x ŋ ŋ 1 x English thin θ ɪ n German Ding d ɪ ŋ English thing θ ɪ ŋ German dumm d ʊ m English dumb d ʌ m German Dorn d ɔɐ n English thorn d ɔː n 19 / 45

Language History Sound Change Sound Change Cognate List Alignment Correspondence List German dünn d ʏ n GER ENG Frequ. d θ 2 x d d 1 x n n 1 x m m 1 x ŋ ŋ 1 x English thin θ ɪ n German Ding d ɪ ŋ English thing θ ɪ ŋ German dumm d ʊ m English dumb d ʌ m German Dorn d ɔɐ n English thorn θ ɔː n 19 / 45

Language History Sound Change Sound Change Cognate List Alignment Correspondence List German dünn d ʏ n GER ENG Frequ. d θ 3 x d d 1 x ? n n 2 x m m 1 x ŋ ŋ 1 x English thin θ ɪ n German Ding d ɪ ŋ English thing θ ɪ ŋ German dumm d ʊ m English dumb d ʌ m German Dorn d ɔɐ n English thorn θ ɔː n 19 / 45

Language History Sound Change Sound Change Cognate List Alignment Correspondence List German dünn d ʏ n GER ENG Frequ. d θ 3 x d d 1 x n n 2 x m m 1 x ŋ ŋ 1 x English thin θ ɪ n German Ding d ɪ ŋ English thing θ ɪ ŋ German dumm d ʊ m English dumb d ʌ m German Dorn d ɔɐ n English thorn θ ɔː n 19 / 45

Language History Sound Change Sound Change Cognate List Alignment Correspondence List German dünn d ʏ n GER ENG Frequ. d θ 3 x n n 2 x ŋ ŋ 1 x English thin θ ɪ n German Ding d ɪ ŋ English thing θ ɪ ŋ German Dorn d ɔɐ n English thorn θ ɔː n German dumm d ʊ m English dumb d ʌ m 19 / 45

Linguistics and Biology Linguistics and Biology 20 / 45

Linguistics and Biology Keys to the Past Keys to the Past The Geological Evidences of The Antiquity of Man with Remarks on Theories of The Origin of Species by Variation By Sir Charles Lyell London John Murray, Albemarle Street 1863 21 / 45

Linguistics and Biology Keys to the Past Keys to the Past If we new not- hing of the existence of Latin, - if all historical documents previous to the fin- teenth century had been lost, - if tra- dition even was si- lent as to the former existance of a Ro- man empire, a me- re comparison of the Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French, Wallachian, and Rhaetian dialects would enable us to say that at some time there must ha- ve been a language, from which these six modern dialects derive their origin in common. 21 / 45

Linguistics and Biology Keys to the Past Keys to the Past: Uniformitarianism (Charles Lyell) 22 / 45

Linguistics and Biology Keys to the Past Keys to the Past: Uniformitarianism (Charles Lyell) Uniformity of Change: Laws of change are uniform. They have applied in the past as they apply now and will apply in the future, no matter at which place. 22 / 45

Linguistics and Biology Keys to the Past Keys to the Past: Uniformitarianism (Charles Lyell) Uniformity of Change: Laws of change are uniform. They have applied in the past as they apply now and will apply in the future, no matter at which place. Graduality of Change: Change proceeds gradually, not abrupt. 22 / 45

Linguistics and Biology Keys to the Past Keys to the Past: Uniformitarianism (Charles Lyell) Uniformity of Change: Laws of change are uniform. They have applied in the past as they apply now and will apply in the future, no matter at which place. Graduality of Change: Change proceeds gradually, not abrupt. Abductive Reasoning: We can infer past events and processes by investigating patterns observed in the present, which becomes the “key to the interpretation of some mystery in the archives of remote ages” (Lyell 1830: 165) 22 / 45

Linguistics and Biology Keys to the Past Keys to the Past: Uniformitarianism (August Schleicher) Language Change is a gradual process (Schleicher 1848: 25). is a law-like process (Schleicher 1848: 25). is a natural process which occurs in all languages (Schleicher 1848: 25). universal process which occurs in all times (Schleicher 1863[1873]: 10f). allows us to infer past processes and extinct languages by investigating the languages of the present (see Schleicher 1848: 25). 23 / 45

Linguistics and Biology Keys to the Past Keys to the Past: Summary It was not the direct exchange of ideas that lead to the devel- opment of similar approaches in biology and linguistics, but the astonishing fact that scholars in both fields would at about the same time detect striking parallels between both disci- plines, both regarding their theoretical foundations and the processes they were investigating. 24 / 45

Linguistics and Biology Keys to the Past Keys to the Past: Summary It was not the direct exchange of ideas that lead to the devel- opment of similar approaches in biology and linguistics, but the astonishing fact that scholars in both fields would at about the same time detect striking parallels between both disci- plines, both regarding their theoretical foundations and the processes they were investigating. And linguists were the first to draw trees! 24 / 45

Linguistics and Biology The Quantitative Turn The Quantitative Turn “Indo-European and computational cladistics” (Ringe, Warnow and Taylor 2002) “Language-tree divergence times support the Anatolian theory of Indo-European origin” (Gray und Atkinson 2003) “Language classification by numbers” (McMahon und McMahon 2005) “Curious Parallels and Curious Connections: Phylogenetic Thinking in Biology and Historical Linguistics” (Atkinson und Gray 2005) “Automated classification of the world’s languages” (Brown et al. 2008) “Indo-European languages tree by Levenshtein distance” (Serva and Petroni 2008) “Networks uncover hidden lexical borrowing in Indo-European language evolution” (Nelson-Sathi et al. 2011) 25 / 45

Linguistics and Biology The Quantitative Turn The Quantitative Turn “Indo-European and computational cladistics” (Ringe, Warnow and Taylor 2002) “Language-tree divergence times support the Anatolian theory of Indo-European origin” (Gray und Atkinson 2003) “Language classification by numbers” (McMahon und McMahon 2005) “Curious Parallels and Curious Connections: Phylogenetic Thinking in Biology and Historical Linguistics” (Atkinson und Gray 2005) “Automated classification of the world’s languages” (Brown et al. 2008) “Indo-European languages tree by Levenshtein distance” (Serva and Petroni 2008) “Networks uncover hidden lexical borrowing in Indo-European language evolution” (Nelson-Sathi et al. 2011) 25 / 45

Linguistics and Biology The Quantitative Turn The Quantitative Turn: Words as Genes Basic Concept German ID English ID Italian ID French ID HAND Hand 1 hand 1 mano 2 main 2 BLOOD Blut 3 blood 3 sangue 4 sang 4 HEAD Kopf 5 head 6 testa 7 tête 7 TOOTH Zahn 8 tooth 8 dente 8 dent 8 TO SLEEP schlafen 9 sleep 9 dormir 10 dormir 10 TO SAY sagen 11 say 11 dire 12 dire 12 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 26 / 45

Linguistics and Biology The Quantitative Turn The Quantitative Turn: Words as Genes Basic Concept German ID English ID Italian ID French ID HAND Hand 1 hand 1 mano 2 main 2 BLOOD Blut 3 blood 3 sangue 4 sang 4 HEAD Kopf 5 head 6 testa 7 tête 7 TOOTH Zahn 8 tooth 8 dente 8 dent 8 TO SLEEP schlafen 9 sleep 9 dormir 10 dormir 10 TO SAY sagen 11 say 11 dire 12 dire 12 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 26 / 45

Linguistics and Biology The Quantitative Turn The Quantitative Turn: Words as Genes ID Proto-Form Basic Concept German English Italian French 1 PGM *xanda- HAND 1 1 0 0 2 LAT mānus HAND 0 0 1 1 3 PGM *blođa- BLOOD 1 1 0 0 4 LAT sanguis BLOOD 0 0 1 1 5 PGM *kuppa- HEAD 1 0 0 0 6 PGM *xawbda- HEAD 0 1 0 0 7 LAT tēsta HEAD 0 0 1 1 8 PIE *h3 dont- TOOTH 1 1 1 1 9 PGM *slēpan- TO SLEEP 1 1 0 0 10 LAT dormīre TO SLEEP 0 0 1 1 11 PGM *sagjan- TO SAY 1 1 0 0 12 LAT dīcere TO SAY 0 0 1 1 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 26 / 45

Linguistics and Biology The Quantitative Turn The Quantitative Turn: Words as Genes English 111 German 101 French 000 Italian 001 101 001 001 + B − C + A Char. English German French Italian A 1 1 0 0 B 1 0 0 0 C 1 1 0 1 26 / 45

Linguistics and Biology The Quantitative Turn The Quantitative Turn: Sounds as Nuclein Bases Concept German English Italian French “HAND” G E I F Hand 0 1 2 3 hand 1 0 2 3 mano 2 2 0 2 main 3 3 2 0 “BLOOD” G E I F Blut 0 4 5 4 blood 4 0 6 5 sangue 5 6 0 2 sang 4 5 2 0 Edit Distances between Orthographic Entries 27 / 45

Linguistics and Biology The Quantitative Turn The Quantitative Turn: Sounds as Nuclein Bases German English Italian French German 0 30 60 55 English 30 0 60 50 Italian 60 60 0 20 French 55 50 20 0 27 / 45

Linguistics and Biology Analogies and Parallels Analogies and Parallels Parallels between Species and Languages (Pagel 2009) aspect species languages unit of replication gene word replication asexual und sexual reproduction learning speciation cladogenesis language split forces of change natural selection and genetic drift social selection and trends differentiation tree-like tree-like 28 / 45

Linguistics and Biology Analogies and Parallels Analogies and Parallels 29 / 45

Linguistics and Biology Analogies and Parallels Analogies and Parallels 29 / 45

Linguistics and Biology Analogies and Parallels Analogies and Parallels 29 / 45

Linguistics and Biology Analogies and Parallels Analogies and Parallels Differences between Species and Languages (Geisler & List 2013) Aspect Species Languages domain Popper’s World I Popper’s World III relation between form and function mechanical arbitrary origin monogenesis unclear sequence similarity universal (indepen- dent of species) language-specific differentiation tree-like network-like 30 / 45

Linguistics and Biology Differences Differences in the Alphabets 31 / 45

Linguistics and Biology Differences Differences in the Alphabets • universal • language-specific 31 / 45

Linguistics and Biology Differences Differences in the Alphabets • universal • language-specific • limited • widely varying 31 / 45

Linguistics and Biology Differences Differences in the Alphabets • universal • language-specific • limited • widely varying • constant • mutable 31 / 45

Linguistics and Biology Differences Differences in the Alphabets • universal • language-specific • limited • widely varying • constant • mutable In order to identify homologous words in different languages, corresponding segments and mappings between the alpha- bets have to be identified. Phonetic alignment is thus similar to the task of aligning two sequences which have been drawn from two different alphabets! 31 / 45

Linguistics and Biology Differences Differences in the Differentiation Process Of the 1,000 most frequent Latin words (Stefenelli 1992), 67% were directly inherited in at least one of the descendant languages of Latin, 14% were directly inherited in all descendant languages, only 33% are completely lost, about 50% of the words survive as borrowings from Latin in the descendant languages 32 / 45

Linguistics and Biology Differences Differences in the Differentiation Process Of the 1,000 most frequent Latin words (Stefenelli 1992), 67% were directly inherited in at least one of the descendant languages of Latin, 14% were directly inherited in all descendant languages, only 33% are completely lost, about 50% of the words survive as borrowings from Latin in the descendant languages Saying that languages evolve in tree-like processes is similar to saying that penguins walk: It may be true, but it’s only a part of the whole interesting story. 32 / 45

Linguistics and Biology Differences Differences in the Change Processes GENES <=> WORDS HOMOLOGS <=> COGNATES 33 / 45

Linguistics and Biology Differences Differences in the Change Processes Relations in Biology Relations in Linguistics direct cognate relation homology orthology etymological relation cognate relation indirect cognate relation paralogy xenology indirect etymological relation ? ? ? 33 / 45

Linguistics and Biology Differences Differences in the Change Processes Indo-European Latin Romance ti no to *d(e)h 3 ø datum “given” dōnāre “to present” dōnum “gift” dare “to give” dōs “dowry” date “date” French douna “to give” Provencal don “gift” Spanish dar “to give” Portuguese dote “dowry” Italian 33 / 45

Linguistics and Biology Differences Differences in the Change Processes kurz 'short' BORROWING INHERITANCE INHERITANCE INHERITANCE German short 'short' English *skurt- 'short' Proto-Germanic cǔrtus 'mutilated' Latin *(s)ker- 'cut off' Proto-Indo-European 33 / 45

Linguistics and Biology Differences Differences in the Change Processes Relations in Biology Relations in Linguistics direct cognate relation homology orthology etymological relation cognate relation indirect cognate relation paralogy xenology indirect etymological relation 33 / 45

Linguistics and Biology Differences Differences in the Change Processes Relations in Biology Relations in Linguistics direct cognate relation homology orthology etymological relation cognate relation indirect cognate relation paralogy xenology indirect etymological relation There’s a great difference between the change processes we encode in linguistic datasets and the change processes that are modeled by biological software packages. Gain-loss pro- cesses are far too simple to model the complex relations be- tween cognate words. 33 / 45

Shifting the Paradigm Shifting the Paradigm 34 / 45

Shifting the Paradigm Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Evolution Eukaryotic populations generate tree-like divergence structures over time, while genome evolution in prokaryotes generates both tree-like and net-like components. 35 / 45

Shifting the Paradigm Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Evolution Eukaryotic populations generate tree-like divergence structures over time, while genome evolution in prokaryotes generates both tree-like and net-like components. Evolution and Language History Recalling the scores on borrowing frequency in the descendant languages of Latin, it seems obvious that language history shows a much closer resemblance to prokaryotic evolution than to eukaryotic evolution. When trying to apply methods from bioinformatics to linguistic problems, it seems therefore more fruitful to use those methods that explicitly deal with prokaryotic evolution. 35 / 45

Shifting the Paradigm Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution Minimal Lateral Networks (List et al. 2014) 36 / 45

Shifting the Paradigm Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution Minimal Lateral Networks (List et al. 2014) -- Spanish -- French -- Italian Danish -- English -- German -- 36 / 45

Shifting the Paradigm Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution Minimal Lateral Networks (List et al. 2014) -- Spanish -- French -- Italian Danish -- English -- German -- 36 / 45

Shifting the Paradigm Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution Minimal Lateral Networks (List et al. 2014) -- Spanish -- French -- Italian Danish -- English -- German -- 36 / 45

Shifting the Paradigm Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution Minimal Lateral Networks (List et al. 2014) -- Spanish -- French -- Italian Danish -- English -- German -- 36 / 45

Shifting the Paradigm Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution Minimal Lateral Networks (List et al. 2014) . . ---Lánzhōu . Fùzhōu -- . Xiāngtàn -- . M ěixiàn -- . H ongkong -- . ---Wǔhàn . ---Běijīng . ---Kùnmíng . Hángzhōu -- . Xiàmén -- . ---Chéngdū . Sùzhōu -- . Shànghǎi -- . Táiběi -- . ---Zhèngzhōu . Shèxiàn -- . ---Nánjīng . ---Guìyáng . W énzhōu -- . N ánníng -- . Tūnxī -- . ---Tiānjìn . Shāntóu -- . ---Xīníng . ---Q īngdǎo . ---Ürüm qi . ---Píngyáo . Nánchàng -- . ---Tàiyuán . Chángshā -- . Hǎikǒu -- . ---Héfèi . Jiàn'ǒu -- . ---Yīnchuàn . ---Hohhot . Táoyuán -- . ---Xī'ān . G uǎngzhōu -- . ---Harbin . ---Jìnán . 0 . 0 . 0 . Inferred Links Reference tree of the Chinese dialects 37 / 45

Shifting the Paradigm Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution Minimal Lateral Networks (List et al. 2014) . . ---Lánzhōu . Fùzhōu -- . Xiāngtàn -- . M ěixiàn -- . H ongkong -- . ---Wǔhàn . ---Běijīng . ---Kùnmíng . Hángzhōu -- . Xiàmén -- . ---Chéngdū . Sùzhōu -- . Shànghǎi -- . Táiběi -- . ---Zhèngzhōu . Shèxiàn -- . ---Nánjīng . ---Guìyáng . W énzhōu -- . N ánníng -- . Tūnxī -- . ---Tiānjìn . Shāntóu -- . ---Xīníng . ---Q īngdǎo . ---Ürüm qi . ---Píngyáo . Nánchàng -- . ---Tàiyuán . Chángshā -- . Hǎikǒu -- . ---Héfèi . Jiàn'ǒu -- . ---Yīnchuàn . ---Hohhot . Táoyuán -- . ---Xī'ān . G uǎngzhōu -- . ---Harbin . ---Jìnán . 0 . 0 . 0 . Inferred Links MLN analysis, no borrowing allowed 37 / 45

Shifting the Paradigm Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution Minimal Lateral Networks (List et al. 2014) . . ---Lánzhōu . Fùzhōu -- . Xiāngtàn -- . M ěixiàn -- . H ongkong -- . ---Wǔhàn . ---Běijīng . ---Kùnmíng . Hángzhōu -- . Xiàmén -- . ---Chéngdū . Sùzhōu -- . Shànghǎi -- . Táiběi -- . ---Zhèngzhōu . Shèxiàn -- . ---Nánjīng . ---Guìyáng . W énzhōu -- . N ánníng -- . Tūnxī -- . ---Tiānjìn . Shāntóu -- . ---Xīníng . ---Q īngdǎo . ---Ürüm qi . ---Píngyáo . Nánchàng -- . ---Tàiyuán . Chángshā -- . Hǎikǒu -- . ---Héfèi . Jiàn'ǒu -- . ---Yīnchuàn . ---Hohhot . Táoyuán -- . ---Xī'ān . G uǎngzhōu -- . ---Harbin . ---Jìnán . 1 . 10 . 20 . Inferred Links MLN analysis, borrowing favored 37 / 45

Shifting the Paradigm Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution Minimal Lateral Networks (List et al. 2014) . . ---Lánzhōu . Fùzhōu -- . Xiāngtàn -- . M ěixiàn -- . H ongkong -- . ---Wǔhàn . ---Běijīng . ---Kùnmíng . Hángzhōu -- . Xiàmén -- . ---Chéngdū . Sùzhōu -- . Shànghǎi -- . Táiběi -- . ---Zhèngzhōu . Shèxiàn -- . ---Nánjīng . ---Guìyáng . W énzhōu -- . N ánníng -- . Tūnxī -- . ---Tiānjìn . Shāntóu -- . ---Xīníng . ---Q īngdǎo . ---Ürüm qi . ---Píngyáo . Nánchàng -- . ---Tàiyuán . Chángshā -- . Hǎikǒu -- . ---Héfèi . Jiàn'ǒu -- . ---Yīnchuàn . ---Hohhot . Táoyuán -- . ---Xī'ān . G uǎngzhōu -- . ---Harbin . ---Jìnán . 1 . 4 . 8 . Inferred Links MLN analysis, best fit of borrowing and inheritance 37 / 45

Shifting the Paradigm Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution Minimal Lateral Networks (List et al. 2014) . . Guānhuà . Xiàng . Mǐn . Yuè . Wú . Jìn . Kèjiā . Gàn . Huī . 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 . 8 . 9 . 10 . 11 . 12 . 13 . 14 . 15 . 16 . 17 . 18 . 19 . 20 . 21 . 22 . 23 . 24 . 25 . 26 . 27 . 28 . 29 . 30 . 31 . 32 . 33 . 34 . 35 . 36 . 37 . 38 . 39 . 40 . 1 . Běijīng 北京 . 2 . Chángshā 长沙 . 3 . Chéngdū 成都 . 4 . Fùzhōu 福州 . 5 . Guǎngzhōu 广州 . 6 . Guìyáng 贵阳 . 7 . Harbin 哈尔滨 . 8 . Hǎikǒu 海口 . 9 . Hángzhōu 杭州 . 10 . Héfèi 合肥 . 11 . Hohhot 呼和浩特 . 12 . Jiàn'ōu 建瓯 . 13 . Jìnán 济南 . 14 . Kùnmíng 昆明 . 15 . Lánzhōu 兰州 . 16 . Měixiàn 梅县 . 17 . Nánchàng 南昌 . 18 . Nánjīng 南京 . 19 . Nánníng 南宁 . 20 . Píngyáo 平遥 . 21 . Qīngdǎo 青岛 . 22 . Shànghǎi 上海 . 23 . Shāntóu 汕头 . 24 . Shèxiàn 歙县 . 25 . Sùzhōu 苏州 . 26 . Táiběi 台北 . 27 . Tàiyuán 太原 . 28 . Táoyuán 桃园 . 29 . Tiānjìn 天津 . 30 . Tūnxī 屯溪 . 31 . Wénzhōu 温州 . 32 . Wǔhàn 武汉 . 33 . Ürümqi 乌鲁木齐 . 34 . Xiàmén 厦门 . 35 . Hongkong 香港 . 36 . Xiāngtàn 湘潭 . 37 . Xīníng 西宁 . 38 . Xī'ān 西安 . 39 . Yīnchuàn 银川 . 40 . Zhèngzhōu 郑州 . 1 . 7 . 15 . Inferred Links 37 / 45

Shifting the Paradigm Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution Minimal Lateral Networks (List et al. 2014) . . -----Jìnán . -----Harbin . -----Héfèi . Chángshā ---- . Sùzhōu ---- . -----Yīnchuàn . -----Běijīng . Hángzhōu ---- . -----Chéngdū . -----Hohhot . -----Lánzhōu . Xiāngtàn ---- . -----Ürüm qi . M ěixiàn ---- . -----Xī'ān . G uǎngzhōu ---- . -----Nánjīng . Táoyuán ---- . -----Zhèngzhōu . -----Kùnmíng . Táiběi ---- . Shànghǎi ---- . Xiàmén ---- . Jiàn'ǒu ---- . Shèxiàn ---- . -----Q īngdǎo . -----Xīníng . Fùzhōu ---- . -----Tàiyuán . -----Píngyáo . Nánchàng ---- . H ongkong ---- . N ánníng ---- . W énzhōu ---- . -----Guìyáng . Shāntóu ---- . -----Tiānjìn . Tūnxī ---- . Hǎikǒu ---- . -----Wǔhàn . 太阳 . 日头 . 热头 . 阳婆 . 日 . Loss Event . Gain Event Item „sun” 38 / 45

Shifting the Paradigm Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution Minimal Lateral Networks (List et al. 2014) Item „sun” . . Shànghǎi ---- . Hongkong ---- . Táiběi ---- . Nánjīng ---- . Táoyuán ---- . Běijīng ---- . Měixiàn ---- . Xiàmén ---- . Fùzhōu ---- . Guǎngzhōu ---- . 太阳 . 日头 . Loss Event . Gain Event 38 / 45

Shifting the Paradigm Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution Minimal Lateral Networks (List et al. 2014) Item „sun” . . Shànghǎi ---- . Hongkong ---- . Táiběi ---- . Nánjīng ---- . Táoyuán ---- . Běijīng ---- . Měixiàn ---- . Xiàmén ---- . Fùzhōu ---- . Guǎngzhōu ---- . 太阳 . 日头 . Loss Event . Gain Event 38 / 45

Shifting the Paradigm Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution Minimal Lateral Networks (List et al. 2014) Item „sun” . . Shànghǎi ---- . Hongkong ---- . Táiběi ---- . Nánjīng ---- . Táoyuán ---- . Běijīng ---- . Měixiàn ---- . Xiàmén ---- . Fùzhōu ---- . Guǎngzhōu ---- . 太阳 . 日头 . Loss Event . Gain Event 38 / 45

Shifting the Paradigm Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution Biological methods dealing with both vertical and horizontal processes of evolution may provide interesting and new in- sights into the dynamics underlying language history. 39 / 45

Shifting the Paradigm Community Structure and Semantic Change Community Structure and Semantic Change Semantic change plays a crucial role in language change. Al- though most linguists assume that it proceeds according to certain general patterns, we currently lack the empirical basis to pursue the question in depth. Normally, semantic change proceeds by cumulation and reduction. 40 / 45

Shifting the Paradigm Community Structure and Semantic Change Community Structure and Semantic Change German “head” Kopf . k ɔ p͡f Pre-German “head” *kop – k ɔ p “vessel” Proto- Germanic *kuppa- k u pː a “vessel” POLYSEMY PHASE FORM MEANING MONOSEMY PHASE MONOSEMY PHASE CUMULATION REDUCTION 40 / 45

Shifting the Paradigm Community Structure and Semantic Change Community Structure and Semantic Change “cup” CONTEST TROPHY [kʌp] CUP English polysemy structure for cup 40 / 45

Shifting the Paradigm Community Structure and Semantic Change Community Structure and Semantic Change “head, cup” CUP HEAD [kɔp] TOP Dutch polysemy structure for kop 40 / 45

Shifting the Paradigm Community Structure and Semantic Change Community Structure and Semantic Change “head” HEAD TOP [kɔp͡f] CHIEF German polysemy structure for Kopf 40 / 45

Shifting the Paradigm Community Structure and Semantic Change Community Structure and Semantic Change Key Concept Russian German ... 1.1 world mir, svet Welt ... 1.21 earth, land zemlja Erde, Land ... 1.212 ground, soil počva Erde, Boden ... 1.420 tree derevo Baum ... 1.430 wood derevo Wald ... ... ... ... ... ... 41 / 45

Shifting the Paradigm Community Structure and Semantic Change Community Structure and Semantic Change CLICS: Crosslinguistic Colexifications - 221 Languages - 64 language families - 1280 concepts - 301,498 words - 45,667 polysemies (colexifications) - 16,239 different links between concepts - http://clics.lingpy.org 41 / 45

Shifting the Paradigm Community Structure and Semantic Change Community Structure and Semantic Change 684 678 871 1043 6 30 129 196 1243 128 869 853 650 344 1103 150 185 627 232 709 1035 1206 177 97 311 496 606 137 207 444 840 1077 325 222 1063 1138 1204 1258 559 723 495 766 914 38 1101 652 865 891 872 633 291 980 700 144 410 430 1025 406 464 787 622 131 242 918 275 1159 99 1174 671 1038 786 705 641 760 1259 356 391 197 10 214 299 63 191 619 644 792 1205 897 67 1231 213 226 747 681 399 841 439 773 123 800 16 1067 1227 696 417 550 68 76 108 360 1244 339 500 81 867 79 1097 98 96 833 771 715 455 380 1268 1186 1046 39 252 1228 66 23 1112 133 676 336 739 1150 1071 986 485 112 372 1109 830 721 1053 1057 601 573 556 527 1248 614 488 908 499 1002 309 442 814 1193 569 458 258 563 653 682 774 70 1151 948 801 1082 243 47 71 83 153 1265 934 85 1215 1199 523 581 422 21 358 1261 111 354 219 759 15 890 261 1222 141 158 74 806 1031 845 770 850 903 1224 419 754 433 798 188 1256 613 528 208 539 323 981 132 1055 1001 790 804 844 1118 907 640 446 815 923 498 201 1184 578 566 427 532 452 151 750 598 1094 345 735 777 978 599 492 390 286 1107 742 1015 1202 1210 1257 1275 859 988 69 752 596 290 126 110 950 922 1047 741 253 347 385 620 966 221 431 3 224 1194 999 953 1029 852 301 389 318 530 1048 1032 175 701 544 1119 241 94 745 835 1270 62 107 159 20 767 512 331 248 549 1013 946 974 1022 1100 477 302 233 1168 1003 1211 570 307 40 945 1269 784 546 437 901 350 238 305 1191 482 1012 977 906 783 524 117 457 603 836 1181 880 229 124 216 1113 1074 72 586 647 447 2 113 1179 7 1006 665 397 502 610 1274 707 327 659 667 824 917 985 1089 346 1229 101 542 1042 727 782 733 967 462 592 468 1106 440 478 308 577 698 776 75 1155 51 145 517 359 938 1157 1160 1183 947 1102 1135 1252 343 608 537 103 634 251 383 506 25 829 396 686 679 574 516 42 250 379 809 602 660 780 765 697 856 899 594 1008 393 179 114 1140 11 100 1209 618 600 192 1277 896 1142 1278 762 421 713 182 521 861 672 297 1116 1190 1192 140 1212 46 493 1187 157 1225 212 403 519 616 173 413 912 1110 84 756 793 636 118 889 692 998 366 711 1045 61 240 1263 199 648 832 289 522 368 1091 931 982 949 400 119 388 811 53 59 1069 708 952 545 763 1238 184 825 377 1242 1233 262 635 269 1062 1061 1073 933 17 1247 352 64 384 50 632 736 1246 822 781 758 1 939 595 778 105 860 1049 1066 1072 995 503 370 919 1149 1127 1128 972 1126 245 921 973 675 587 1235 960 928 926 1143 548 1250 86 1021 32 1068 719 965 259 1070 863 638 303 324 873 249 892 976 1007 722 36 459 293 165 209 557 1245 788 862 651 900 31 483 236 935 1052 115 294 680 831 44 453 206 971 1273 170 753 256 1148 200 450 382 1240 561 615 317 572 725 870 438 139 1011 646 1117 392 45 276 264 704 1080 174 1050 808 1197 508 576 225 562 471 1217 333 1014 593 92 1034 611 1171 312 802 1253 29 902 244 582 466 668 878 341 432 1163 625 904 164 467 1195 1232 796 828 281 629 349 1166 411 369 387 1208 394 415 1000 58 1098 148 287 1223 818 263 220 838 876 313 260 65 1165 5 355 106 1172 490 718 171 1139 163 785 881 887 1169 319 585 553 894 306 314 1041 1009 799 674 848 1201 1004 689 1085 1218 1145 1170 228 911 279 73 104 690 1254 402 340 169 693 868 893 1018 78 1092 194 555 198 834 1249 997 932 237 1176 666 956 624 1262 541 520 795 866 702 4 734 1095 1180 728 964 1079 271 842 1241 1056 154 751 353 905 1136 504 909 910 1133 362 583 670 1124 381 1216 215 178 571 470 142 376 1154 172 296 533 364 963 152 797 1213 803 1051 738 426 1036 1153 637 823 915 428 1075 560 547 1137 35 882 89 511 1122 805 494 1130 1188 1086 1236 669 588 930 703 942 18 655 335 155 710 1156 1028 465 147 183 414 1221 273 166 1054 278 55 460 812 1090 810 180 768 143 156 404 367 1182 231 288 136 456 82 529 970 1016 729 395 187 604 408 330 1064 34 1267 847 726 543 677 642 940 645 958 683 695 864 1058 605 1084 451 443 699 1167 959 925 1198 227 886 628 1178 337 991 813 657 1185 1039 769 1081 484 712 1189 944 1207 322 33 685 424 80 270 937 1177 283 1237 816 130 161 189 77 300 1026 463 1104 326 589 60 983 474 1093 744 748 554 292 41 267 984 373 1214 957 1024 969 507 37 874 1030 630 579 962 535 706 688 122 497 1060 1083 1027 102 510 405 1134 658 617 936 929 363 1175 361 536 534 1219 181 386 884 418 558 8 479 979 551 505 316 298 26 315 761 202 1144 176 473 348 134 639 663 717 885 924 149 49 1078 1040 57 167 764 1173 673 280 1152 277 1272 1065 272 827 531 607 1123 257 996 436 9 826 234 1096 875 525 304 1108 475 1132 714 846 540 716 1005 1105 357 1162 694 920 743 28 994 1200 168 1266 420 515 568 755 895 218 916 730 807 210 375 854 1010 879 1125 268 1129 1114 1255 1158 1279 487 486 398 597 661 135 565 621 193 321 1230 513 654 265 612 737 855 211 1196 246 1264 584 338 749 1271 434 121 423 509 839 1147 656 230 239 489 14 469 22 1044 351 448 282 329 961 254 989 371 284 223 843 821 24 1023 643 819 285 514 746 757 791 138 186 849 93 951 127 877 1088 518 1164 1260 501 54 190 95 43 205 1276 116 146 662 217 461 883 204 1033 310 472 12 412 332 817 649 794 1037 943 927 481 968 425 109 195 857 1121 564 687 664 724 87 1120 88 449 429 255 987 992 1111 591 575 491 720 851 328 941 990 1019 993 1087 955 580 1226 975 1099 732 235 779 365 1234 441 609 247 334 91 1251 1131 913 691 52 274 1017 435 90 407 480 1239 13 623 0 266 626 295 954 1059 552 898 858 772 526 1115 48 1161 125 590 454 1020 1141 203 740 1146 342 820 1220 56 320 416 27 401 476 19 120 1203 445 789 775 888 567 378 1076 160 162 409 731 631 374 538 837 41 / 45

Shifting the Paradigm Community Structure and Semantic Change Community Structure and Semantic Change Concept "money" is part of a cluster with the central concept "fishscale" with a total of 10 nodes. Hover over forms for each link. Click on the forms to check their sources. Click HERE to export the current network. ity: Line weights: Coloring: Family silver leather fishscale bark coin fur snail skin, hide money shell 49 links for "silver" and "money": Language Family Form 1. Ignaciano Arawakan ne 2. Aymara, Central Aymaran ḳulʸḳi 3. Tsafiki Barbacoan kaˈla 4. Seselwa Creole French Creole larzan 5. Miao, White Hmong-Mien nyiaj 6. Breton Indo-European arhant 7. French Indo-European argent 8. Gaelic, Irish Indo-European airgead 9. Welsh Indo-European arian 10. Cofán Isolate koriΦĩʔdi 41 / 45

Shifting the Paradigm Community Structure and Semantic Change Community Structure and Semantic Change Concept "wheel" is part of a cluster with the central concept "leg" with a total of 11 nodes. Hover over the e each link. Click on the forms to check their sources. Click HERE to export the current network. ity: Line weights: Coloring: Geolocation sphere, ball round footprint foot calf of leg circle thigh wheel leg hip buttocks 6 links for "foot" and "wheel": Language Family Form 1. Cofán Isolate c̷ɨʔtʰe 2. Puinave Isolate sim 3. Yaminahua Panoan taɨ 4. Wayampi Tupi pɨ 5. Pumé Unclassified taɔ 6. Ninam Yanomam mãhuk 41 / 45

Shifting the Paradigm Community Structure and Semantic Change Community Structure and Semantic Change Polysemy networks bear a strong potential to investigate both cognitive and cultural forces underlying semantic change. Evolutionary biology, with its strong background in the ap- plication of network methods, may inspire the development of innovative approaches to study cross-linguistic polysemy data. 42 / 45

Shifting the Paradigm Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation 43 / 45

Shifting the Paradigm Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation German m oː n t - English m uː n - - Danish m ɔː n - ə Swedish m oː n - e 43 / 45

Shifting the Paradigm Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation German m oː n t - English m uː n - - Danish m ɔː n - ə Swedish m oː n - e Fúzhōu ŋ u o ʔ ⁵ - - - - - - - - - - Měixiàn ŋ i a t ⁵ - - - - - k u o ŋ ⁴⁴ Guǎngzhōu j - y t ² l - œ ŋ ²² - - - - - Běijīng - y ɛ - ⁵¹ l i ɑ ŋ - - - - - - 43 / 45

Shifting the Paradigm Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation German m oː n t - English m uː n - - Danish m ɔː n - ə Swedish m oː n - e Fúzhōu ŋ u o ʔ ⁵ - - - - - - - - - - Měixiàn ŋ i a t ⁵ - - - - - k u o ŋ ⁴⁴ Guǎngzhōu j - y t ² l - œ ŋ ²² - - - - - Běijīng - y ɛ - ⁵¹ l i ɑ ŋ - - - - - - "MOON" "MOON" "SHINE" "LIGHT" 43 / 45

Shifting the Paradigm Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation Fúzhōu Měixiàn Guǎngzhōu Běijīng 43 / 45

Shifting the Paradigm Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation Fúzhōu Měixiàn Guǎngzhōu Běijīng INNO VATIO N INNO VATIO N INNO VATIO N BO RRO W ING LO SS INNO VATIO N INNO VATIO N 43 / 45

Shifting the Paradigm Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation Fúzhōu Měixiàn Guǎngzhōu Běijīng Fúzhōu Měixiàn Guǎngzhōu Běijīng 43 / 45

Shifting the Paradigm Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation Fúzhōu Měixiàn Guǎngzhōu Běijīng Fúzhōu Měixiàn Guǎngzhōu Běijīng 43 / 45

Shifting the Paradigm Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation Fúzhōu Měixiàn Guǎngzhōu Běijīng 43 / 45

Shifting the Paradigm Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation Fúzhōu Měixiàn Guǎngzhōu Běijīng 43 / 45

Shifting the Paradigm Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation LOSS INNO VATIO N INNO VATIO N BORROWING 43 / 45

Shifting the Paradigm Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation The complex patterns of lexical change create complex re- lations between the words in linguistic datasets. So far, no formal methods are known to detect and analyze these rela- tions. Methods for tree reconciliation in biology may provide great help in reconciling the individual history of words with the general history of languages. 44 / 45

Thanks for Your Attention! 45 / 45