Similarities and Differences between Evolutionary Processes in Linguistics and Biology Johann-Mattis List DFG research fellow Centre des recherches linguistiques sur l’Asie Orientale Team Adaptation, Integration, Reticulation, Evolution EHESS and UPMC, Paris 2015/05/27 1 / 45
Languages What is a Language? What is a Language? Norwegian, Swedish, and Danish are different languages . . Běijīng-Chinese, Shànghǎi-Chinese und Hakka-Chinese are dialects of the same language 3 / 45
Languages What is a Language? What is a Language? From the perspective of the lexicon and the sound system, the Chinese dialects are at least as diverse as the Scandinavian languages 4 / 45
Languages Language as a Diasystem Language as a Diasystem Languages are complex aggregates of different linguistic systems which “coexist and mutually influence each other” (Coseriu 1973: 40, my translation). . . 5 / 45
Languages Language Variation Language Variation: Dimensions LANGUAGE diastratic diatopic diaphasic diam esic social layer place situation m edium 6 / 45
Languages Language Variation Language Variation: Dimensions LANGUAGE diachronic diastratic diatopic diaphasic diam esic time social layer place situation m edium 6 / 45
Languages Language Variation Language Variation: Complexity of Borrowing expected Mandarin [ma₅₅po₂₁lou] attested Mandarin [wan₅₁paw₂₁lu₅₁] explanation Cantonese [maːn₂₂pow₃₅low₃₂] 7 / 45
Languages Language Variation Language Variation: Complexity of Borrowing English Cantonese Mandarin maːlboʁo maːn22pow35low32 wan51paw21lu51 Proper Name “Road of 10 000 treasures” “Road of 10 000 treasures” 万宝路 8 / 45
Language History Modeling Language History Modeling Language History: Dendrophilia August Schleicher (1821-1868) “These assumptions, which follow logically from the results of our re- search, can be best illustrated by the image of a branching tree.” (Schle- icher 1853: 787) 10 / 45
Language History Modeling Language History Modeling Language History: Dendrophobia Johannes Schmidt (1843-1901) “You can turn it as you want, but as long as you stick to the idea that the his- torically attested languages have been developing by multiple furcations of an ancestral language, that is, as long as you assume that there is a Stammbaum [family tree] of the Indo-European lan- guages, you will never be able to explain all facts which have been assembled in a scientifically satisfying way.” (Schmidt 1872: 17, my translation) 12 / 45
Language History Modeling Language History Modeling Language History: Dendrophobia Johannes Schmidt (1843-1901) “I want to replace [the tree] by the im- age of a wave that spreads out from the center in concentric circles be- coming weaker and weaker the far- ther they get away from the center.” (Schmidt 1872: 27, my translation) 13 / 45
Language History Lexical Change Lexical Change 'soh₂-wl̩- sh₂uˈen- SUN Indo-European soːwel- sunːoː- SUN Germanic zɔnə SUN German suːl SUN Swedish 16 / 45
Language History Lexical Change Lexical Change 'soh₂-wl̩- sh₂uˈen- SUN Indo-European soːwel- sunːoː- SUN Germanic soːl- SUN Romance zɔnə SUN German suːl SUN Swedish 16 / 45
Language History Lexical Change Lexical Change 'soh₂-wl̩- sh₂uˈen- SUN Indo-European soːwel- sunːoː- SUN Germanic soːl- SUN soːlikul- SMALL SUN Romance zɔnə SUN German suːl SUN Swedish 16 / 45
Language History Lexical Change Lexical Change 'soh₂-wl̩- sh₂uˈen- SUN Indo-European soːwel- sunːoː- SUN Germanic soːl- SUN soːlikul- SMALL SUN Romance solej SUN French sol SUN Spanish zɔnə SUN German suːl SUN Swedish 16 / 45
Language History Lexical Change Lexical Change 'soh₂-wl◌̩ - sh₂uˈen- SUN Indo-European soːwel- sunːoː- SUN Germanic soːl- SUN soːlikul- SMALL SUN Romance solej SUN French sol SUN Spanish zɔnə SUN German suːl SUN Swedish SEM ANTIC SHIFT M O RPH O LO G ICAL CH AN G E M O R PH O LO G ICA L CH A N G E MORPHOLOGICAL CHANGE MORPHOLOGICAL CHANGE 16 / 45
Language History Lexical Change Lexical Change kop Kopf Kopf köpfen World Cup Welt- ccup Old High German Standard German MORPHOLOGICAL CHANGE SEMANTIC CHANGE SEMANTIC CHANGE STRATIC CHANGE MORPHOLOGICAL CHANGE 17 / 45
Language History Sound Change Sound Change Meaning Latin Italian ‘FEATHER’ pluːma pjuma ‘FLAT’ plaːnus pjano ‘SQUARE’ plateːa pjaʦːa Meaning Latin Italian ‘TONGUE’ liŋgua liŋgwa ‘MOON’ lu:na luna ‘SLOW’ lentus lento l > j 18 / 45
Language History Sound Change Sound Change Meaning Latin Italian ‘FEATHER’ pluːma pjuma ‘FLAT’ plaːnus pjano ‘SQUARE’ plateːa pjaʦːa Meaning Latin Italian ‘TONGUE’ liŋgua liŋgwa ‘MOON’ lu:na luna ‘SLOW’ lentus lento l > j l > l 18 / 45
Language History Sound Change Sound Change Meaning Latin Italian ‘FEATHER’ pluːma pjuma ‘FLAT’ plaːnus pjano ‘SQUARE’ plateːa pjaʦːa Meaning Latin Italian ‘TONGUE’ liŋgua liŋgwa ‘MOON’ lu:na luna ‘SLOW’ lentus lento l > j l > l l > j / p _ 18 / 45
Language History Sound Change Sound Change Meaning Latin Italian ‘FEATHER’ pluːma pjuma ‘FLAT’ plaːnus pjano ‘SQUARE’ plateːa pjaʦːa Meaning Latin Italian ‘TONGUE’ liŋgua liŋgwa ‘MOON’ lu:na luna ‘SLOW’ lentus lento l > j l > l l > j / p _ Not sounds change, sound systems change (Bloomfield 1933)! 18 / 45
Language History Sound Change Sound Change Meaning Latin Italian ‘FEATHER’ pluːma pjuma ‘FLAT’ plaːnus pjano ‘SQUARE’ plateːa pjaʦːa Meaning Latin Italian ‘TONGUE’ liŋgua liŋgwa ‘MOON’ lu:na luna ‘SLOW’ lentus lento l > j l > l l > j / p _ Not sounds change, sound systems change (Bloomfield 1933)! Sound change depends on the context in which the sounds occur! 18 / 45
Language History Sound Change Sound Change Cognate List Alignment Correspondence List German dünn d ʏ n GER ENG Frequ. d θ 2 x d d 1 x n n 1 x m m 1 x ŋ ŋ 1 x English thin θ ɪ n German Ding d ɪ ŋ English thing θ ɪ ŋ German dumm d ʊ m English dumb d ʌ m German Dorn d ɔɐ n English thorn d ɔː n 19 / 45
Language History Sound Change Sound Change Cognate List Alignment Correspondence List German dünn d ʏ n GER ENG Frequ. d θ 3 x d d 1 x n n 1 x m m 1 x ŋ ŋ 1 x English thin θ ɪ n German Ding d ɪ ŋ English thing θ ɪ ŋ German dumm d ʊ m English dumb d ʌ m German Dorn d ɔɐ n English thorn d ɔː n 19 / 45
Language History Sound Change Sound Change Cognate List Alignment Correspondence List German dünn d ʏ n GER ENG Frequ. d θ 3 x d d 1 x n n 1 x m m 1 x ŋ ŋ 1 x English thin θ ɪ n German Ding d ɪ ŋ English thing θ ɪ ŋ German dumm d ʊ m English dumb d ʌ m German Dorn d ɔɐ n English thorn d ɔː n 19 / 45
Language History Sound Change Sound Change Cognate List Alignment Correspondence List German dünn d ʏ n GER ENG Frequ. d θ 2 x d d 1 x n n 1 x m m 1 x ŋ ŋ 1 x English thin θ ɪ n German Ding d ɪ ŋ English thing θ ɪ ŋ German dumm d ʊ m English dumb d ʌ m German Dorn d ɔɐ n English thorn θ ɔː n 19 / 45
Language History Sound Change Sound Change Cognate List Alignment Correspondence List German dünn d ʏ n GER ENG Frequ. d θ 3 x d d 1 x ? n n 2 x m m 1 x ŋ ŋ 1 x English thin θ ɪ n German Ding d ɪ ŋ English thing θ ɪ ŋ German dumm d ʊ m English dumb d ʌ m German Dorn d ɔɐ n English thorn θ ɔː n 19 / 45
Language History Sound Change Sound Change Cognate List Alignment Correspondence List German dünn d ʏ n GER ENG Frequ. d θ 3 x d d 1 x n n 2 x m m 1 x ŋ ŋ 1 x English thin θ ɪ n German Ding d ɪ ŋ English thing θ ɪ ŋ German dumm d ʊ m English dumb d ʌ m German Dorn d ɔɐ n English thorn θ ɔː n 19 / 45
Language History Sound Change Sound Change Cognate List Alignment Correspondence List German dünn d ʏ n GER ENG Frequ. d θ 3 x n n 2 x ŋ ŋ 1 x English thin θ ɪ n German Ding d ɪ ŋ English thing θ ɪ ŋ German Dorn d ɔɐ n English thorn θ ɔː n German dumm d ʊ m English dumb d ʌ m 19 / 45
Linguistics and Biology Keys to the Past Keys to the Past The Geological Evidences of The Antiquity of Man with Remarks on Theories of The Origin of Species by Variation By Sir Charles Lyell London John Murray, Albemarle Street 1863 21 / 45
Linguistics and Biology Keys to the Past Keys to the Past If we new not- hing of the existence of Latin, - if all historical documents previous to the fin- teenth century had been lost, - if tra- dition even was si- lent as to the former existance of a Ro- man empire, a me- re comparison of the Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French, Wallachian, and Rhaetian dialects would enable us to say that at some time there must ha- ve been a language, from which these six modern dialects derive their origin in common. 21 / 45
Linguistics and Biology Keys to the Past Keys to the Past: Uniformitarianism (Charles Lyell) Uniformity of Change: Laws of change are uniform. They have applied in the past as they apply now and will apply in the future, no matter at which place. 22 / 45
Linguistics and Biology Keys to the Past Keys to the Past: Uniformitarianism (Charles Lyell) Uniformity of Change: Laws of change are uniform. They have applied in the past as they apply now and will apply in the future, no matter at which place. Graduality of Change: Change proceeds gradually, not abrupt. 22 / 45
Linguistics and Biology Keys to the Past Keys to the Past: Uniformitarianism (Charles Lyell) Uniformity of Change: Laws of change are uniform. They have applied in the past as they apply now and will apply in the future, no matter at which place. Graduality of Change: Change proceeds gradually, not abrupt. Abductive Reasoning: We can infer past events and processes by investigating patterns observed in the present, which becomes the “key to the interpretation of some mystery in the archives of remote ages” (Lyell 1830: 165) 22 / 45
Linguistics and Biology Keys to the Past Keys to the Past: Uniformitarianism (August Schleicher) Language Change is a gradual process (Schleicher 1848: 25). is a law-like process (Schleicher 1848: 25). is a natural process which occurs in all languages (Schleicher 1848: 25). universal process which occurs in all times (Schleicher 1863[1873]: 10f). allows us to infer past processes and extinct languages by investigating the languages of the present (see Schleicher 1848: 25). 23 / 45
Linguistics and Biology Keys to the Past Keys to the Past: Summary It was not the direct exchange of ideas that lead to the devel- opment of similar approaches in biology and linguistics, but the astonishing fact that scholars in both fields would at about the same time detect striking parallels between both disci- plines, both regarding their theoretical foundations and the processes they were investigating. 24 / 45
Linguistics and Biology Keys to the Past Keys to the Past: Summary It was not the direct exchange of ideas that lead to the devel- opment of similar approaches in biology and linguistics, but the astonishing fact that scholars in both fields would at about the same time detect striking parallels between both disci- plines, both regarding their theoretical foundations and the processes they were investigating. And linguists were the first to draw trees! 24 / 45
Linguistics and Biology The Quantitative Turn The Quantitative Turn “Indo-European and computational cladistics” (Ringe, Warnow and Taylor 2002) “Language-tree divergence times support the Anatolian theory of Indo-European origin” (Gray und Atkinson 2003) “Language classification by numbers” (McMahon und McMahon 2005) “Curious Parallels and Curious Connections: Phylogenetic Thinking in Biology and Historical Linguistics” (Atkinson und Gray 2005) “Automated classification of the world’s languages” (Brown et al. 2008) “Indo-European languages tree by Levenshtein distance” (Serva and Petroni 2008) “Networks uncover hidden lexical borrowing in Indo-European language evolution” (Nelson-Sathi et al. 2011) 25 / 45
Linguistics and Biology The Quantitative Turn The Quantitative Turn “Indo-European and computational cladistics” (Ringe, Warnow and Taylor 2002) “Language-tree divergence times support the Anatolian theory of Indo-European origin” (Gray und Atkinson 2003) “Language classification by numbers” (McMahon und McMahon 2005) “Curious Parallels and Curious Connections: Phylogenetic Thinking in Biology and Historical Linguistics” (Atkinson und Gray 2005) “Automated classification of the world’s languages” (Brown et al. 2008) “Indo-European languages tree by Levenshtein distance” (Serva and Petroni 2008) “Networks uncover hidden lexical borrowing in Indo-European language evolution” (Nelson-Sathi et al. 2011) 25 / 45
Linguistics and Biology The Quantitative Turn The Quantitative Turn: Words as Genes Basic Concept German ID English ID Italian ID French ID HAND Hand 1 hand 1 mano 2 main 2 BLOOD Blut 3 blood 3 sangue 4 sang 4 HEAD Kopf 5 head 6 testa 7 tête 7 TOOTH Zahn 8 tooth 8 dente 8 dent 8 TO SLEEP schlafen 9 sleep 9 dormir 10 dormir 10 TO SAY sagen 11 say 11 dire 12 dire 12 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 26 / 45
Linguistics and Biology The Quantitative Turn The Quantitative Turn: Words as Genes Basic Concept German ID English ID Italian ID French ID HAND Hand 1 hand 1 mano 2 main 2 BLOOD Blut 3 blood 3 sangue 4 sang 4 HEAD Kopf 5 head 6 testa 7 tête 7 TOOTH Zahn 8 tooth 8 dente 8 dent 8 TO SLEEP schlafen 9 sleep 9 dormir 10 dormir 10 TO SAY sagen 11 say 11 dire 12 dire 12 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 26 / 45
Linguistics and Biology The Quantitative Turn The Quantitative Turn: Words as Genes ID Proto-Form Basic Concept German English Italian French 1 PGM *xanda- HAND 1 1 0 0 2 LAT mānus HAND 0 0 1 1 3 PGM *blođa- BLOOD 1 1 0 0 4 LAT sanguis BLOOD 0 0 1 1 5 PGM *kuppa- HEAD 1 0 0 0 6 PGM *xawbda- HEAD 0 1 0 0 7 LAT tēsta HEAD 0 0 1 1 8 PIE *h3 dont- TOOTH 1 1 1 1 9 PGM *slēpan- TO SLEEP 1 1 0 0 10 LAT dormīre TO SLEEP 0 0 1 1 11 PGM *sagjan- TO SAY 1 1 0 0 12 LAT dīcere TO SAY 0 0 1 1 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 26 / 45
Linguistics and Biology The Quantitative Turn The Quantitative Turn: Words as Genes English 111 German 101 French 000 Italian 001 101 001 001 + B − C + A Char. English German French Italian A 1 1 0 0 B 1 0 0 0 C 1 1 0 1 26 / 45
Linguistics and Biology The Quantitative Turn The Quantitative Turn: Sounds as Nuclein Bases Concept German English Italian French “HAND” G E I F Hand 0 1 2 3 hand 1 0 2 3 mano 2 2 0 2 main 3 3 2 0 “BLOOD” G E I F Blut 0 4 5 4 blood 4 0 6 5 sangue 5 6 0 2 sang 4 5 2 0 Edit Distances between Orthographic Entries 27 / 45
Linguistics and Biology The Quantitative Turn The Quantitative Turn: Sounds as Nuclein Bases German English Italian French German 0 30 60 55 English 30 0 60 50 Italian 60 60 0 20 French 55 50 20 0 27 / 45
Linguistics and Biology Analogies and Parallels Analogies and Parallels Parallels between Species and Languages (Pagel 2009) aspect species languages unit of replication gene word replication asexual und sexual reproduction learning speciation cladogenesis language split forces of change natural selection and genetic drift social selection and trends differentiation tree-like tree-like 28 / 45
Linguistics and Biology Analogies and Parallels Analogies and Parallels Differences between Species and Languages (Geisler & List 2013) Aspect Species Languages domain Popper’s World I Popper’s World III relation between form and function mechanical arbitrary origin monogenesis unclear sequence similarity universal (indepen- dent of species) language-specific differentiation tree-like network-like 30 / 45
Linguistics and Biology Differences Differences in the Alphabets • universal • language-specific • limited • widely varying • constant • mutable In order to identify homologous words in different languages, corresponding segments and mappings between the alpha- bets have to be identified. Phonetic alignment is thus similar to the task of aligning two sequences which have been drawn from two different alphabets! 31 / 45
Linguistics and Biology Differences Differences in the Differentiation Process Of the 1,000 most frequent Latin words (Stefenelli 1992), 67% were directly inherited in at least one of the descendant languages of Latin, 14% were directly inherited in all descendant languages, only 33% are completely lost, about 50% of the words survive as borrowings from Latin in the descendant languages 32 / 45
Linguistics and Biology Differences Differences in the Differentiation Process Of the 1,000 most frequent Latin words (Stefenelli 1992), 67% were directly inherited in at least one of the descendant languages of Latin, 14% were directly inherited in all descendant languages, only 33% are completely lost, about 50% of the words survive as borrowings from Latin in the descendant languages Saying that languages evolve in tree-like processes is similar to saying that penguins walk: It may be true, but it’s only a part of the whole interesting story. 32 / 45
Linguistics and Biology Differences Differences in the Change Processes Indo-European Latin Romance ti no to *d(e)h 3 ø datum “given” dōnāre “to present” dōnum “gift” dare “to give” dōs “dowry” date “date” French douna “to give” Provencal don “gift” Spanish dar “to give” Portuguese dote “dowry” Italian 33 / 45
Linguistics and Biology Differences Differences in the Change Processes kurz 'short' BORROWING INHERITANCE INHERITANCE INHERITANCE German short 'short' English *skurt- 'short' Proto-Germanic cǔrtus 'mutilated' Latin *(s)ker- 'cut off' Proto-Indo-European 33 / 45
Linguistics and Biology Differences Differences in the Change Processes Relations in Biology Relations in Linguistics direct cognate relation homology orthology etymological relation cognate relation indirect cognate relation paralogy xenology indirect etymological relation There’s a great difference between the change processes we encode in linguistic datasets and the change processes that are modeled by biological software packages. Gain-loss pro- cesses are far too simple to model the complex relations be- tween cognate words. 33 / 45
Shifting the Paradigm Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Evolution Eukaryotic populations generate tree-like divergence structures over time, while genome evolution in prokaryotes generates both tree-like and net-like components. 35 / 45
Shifting the Paradigm Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Evolution Eukaryotic populations generate tree-like divergence structures over time, while genome evolution in prokaryotes generates both tree-like and net-like components. Evolution and Language History Recalling the scores on borrowing frequency in the descendant languages of Latin, it seems obvious that language history shows a much closer resemblance to prokaryotic evolution than to eukaryotic evolution. When trying to apply methods from bioinformatics to linguistic problems, it seems therefore more fruitful to use those methods that explicitly deal with prokaryotic evolution. 35 / 45
Shifting the Paradigm Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution Minimal Lateral Networks (List et al. 2014) -- Spanish -- French -- Italian Danish -- English -- German -- 36 / 45
Shifting the Paradigm Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution Minimal Lateral Networks (List et al. 2014) -- Spanish -- French -- Italian Danish -- English -- German -- 36 / 45
Shifting the Paradigm Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution Minimal Lateral Networks (List et al. 2014) -- Spanish -- French -- Italian Danish -- English -- German -- 36 / 45
Shifting the Paradigm Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution Minimal Lateral Networks (List et al. 2014) -- Spanish -- French -- Italian Danish -- English -- German -- 36 / 45
Shifting the Paradigm Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution Biological methods dealing with both vertical and horizontal processes of evolution may provide interesting and new in- sights into the dynamics underlying language history. 39 / 45
Shifting the Paradigm Community Structure and Semantic Change Community Structure and Semantic Change Semantic change plays a crucial role in language change. Al- though most linguists assume that it proceeds according to certain general patterns, we currently lack the empirical basis to pursue the question in depth. Normally, semantic change proceeds by cumulation and reduction. 40 / 45
Shifting the Paradigm Community Structure and Semantic Change Community Structure and Semantic Change German “head” Kopf . k ɔ p͡f Pre-German “head” *kop – k ɔ p “vessel” Proto- Germanic *kuppa- k u pː a “vessel” POLYSEMY PHASE FORM MEANING MONOSEMY PHASE MONOSEMY PHASE CUMULATION REDUCTION 40 / 45
Shifting the Paradigm Community Structure and Semantic Change Community Structure and Semantic Change “cup” CONTEST TROPHY [kʌp] CUP English polysemy structure for cup 40 / 45
Shifting the Paradigm Community Structure and Semantic Change Community Structure and Semantic Change “head, cup” CUP HEAD [kɔp] TOP Dutch polysemy structure for kop 40 / 45
Shifting the Paradigm Community Structure and Semantic Change Community Structure and Semantic Change “head” HEAD TOP [kɔp͡f] CHIEF German polysemy structure for Kopf 40 / 45
Shifting the Paradigm Community Structure and Semantic Change Community Structure and Semantic Change Key Concept Russian German ... 1.1 world mir, svet Welt ... 1.21 earth, land zemlja Erde, Land ... 1.212 ground, soil počva Erde, Boden ... 1.420 tree derevo Baum ... 1.430 wood derevo Wald ... ... ... ... ... ... 41 / 45
Shifting the Paradigm Community Structure and Semantic Change Community Structure and Semantic Change CLICS: Crosslinguistic Colexifications - 221 Languages - 64 language families - 1280 concepts - 301,498 words - 45,667 polysemies (colexifications) - 16,239 different links between concepts - http://clics.lingpy.org 41 / 45
Shifting the Paradigm Community Structure and Semantic Change Community Structure and Semantic Change Concept "money" is part of a cluster with the central concept "fishscale" with a total of 10 nodes. Hover over forms for each link. Click on the forms to check their sources. Click HERE to export the current network. ity: Line weights: Coloring: Family silver leather fishscale bark coin fur snail skin, hide money shell 49 links for "silver" and "money": Language Family Form 1. Ignaciano Arawakan ne 2. Aymara, Central Aymaran ḳulʸḳi 3. Tsafiki Barbacoan kaˈla 4. Seselwa Creole French Creole larzan 5. Miao, White Hmong-Mien nyiaj 6. Breton Indo-European arhant 7. French Indo-European argent 8. Gaelic, Irish Indo-European airgead 9. Welsh Indo-European arian 10. Cofán Isolate koriΦĩʔdi 41 / 45
Shifting the Paradigm Community Structure and Semantic Change Community Structure and Semantic Change Concept "wheel" is part of a cluster with the central concept "leg" with a total of 11 nodes. Hover over the e each link. Click on the forms to check their sources. Click HERE to export the current network. ity: Line weights: Coloring: Geolocation sphere, ball round footprint foot calf of leg circle thigh wheel leg hip buttocks 6 links for "foot" and "wheel": Language Family Form 1. Cofán Isolate c̷ɨʔtʰe 2. Puinave Isolate sim 3. Yaminahua Panoan taɨ 4. Wayampi Tupi pɨ 5. Pumé Unclassified taɔ 6. Ninam Yanomam mãhuk 41 / 45
Shifting the Paradigm Community Structure and Semantic Change Community Structure and Semantic Change Polysemy networks bear a strong potential to investigate both cognitive and cultural forces underlying semantic change. Evolutionary biology, with its strong background in the ap- plication of network methods, may inspire the development of innovative approaches to study cross-linguistic polysemy data. 42 / 45
Shifting the Paradigm Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation German m oː n t - English m uː n - - Danish m ɔː n - ə Swedish m oː n - e 43 / 45
Shifting the Paradigm Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation German m oː n t - English m uː n - - Danish m ɔː n - ə Swedish m oː n - e Fúzhōu ŋ u o ʔ ⁵ - - - - - - - - - - Měixiàn ŋ i a t ⁵ - - - - - k u o ŋ ⁴⁴ Guǎngzhōu j - y t ² l - œ ŋ ²² - - - - - Běijīng - y ɛ - ⁵¹ l i ɑ ŋ - - - - - - 43 / 45
Shifting the Paradigm Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation German m oː n t - English m uː n - - Danish m ɔː n - ə Swedish m oː n - e Fúzhōu ŋ u o ʔ ⁵ - - - - - - - - - - Měixiàn ŋ i a t ⁵ - - - - - k u o ŋ ⁴⁴ Guǎngzhōu j - y t ² l - œ ŋ ²² - - - - - Běijīng - y ɛ - ⁵¹ l i ɑ ŋ - - - - - - "MOON" "MOON" "SHINE" "LIGHT" 43 / 45
Shifting the Paradigm Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation Fúzhōu Měixiàn Guǎngzhōu Běijīng INNO VATIO N INNO VATIO N INNO VATIO N BO RRO W ING LO SS INNO VATIO N INNO VATIO N 43 / 45
Shifting the Paradigm Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation Fúzhōu Měixiàn Guǎngzhōu Běijīng Fúzhōu Měixiàn Guǎngzhōu Běijīng 43 / 45
Shifting the Paradigm Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation Fúzhōu Měixiàn Guǎngzhōu Běijīng Fúzhōu Měixiàn Guǎngzhōu Běijīng 43 / 45
Shifting the Paradigm Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation The complex patterns of lexical change create complex re- lations between the words in linguistic datasets. So far, no formal methods are known to detect and analyze these rela- tions. Methods for tree reconciliation in biology may provide great help in reconciling the individual history of words with the general history of languages. 44 / 45
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