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Similarities and Differences between Evolutionary Processes in Linguistics and Biology

Similarities and Differences between Evolutionary Processes in Linguistics and Biology

Talk, held at the Séminaire dy LBBE (2015/04/27, Laboratoire de Biométrie et Biologie Évolutive, Lyon).

Johann-Mattis List

May 27, 2015
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  1. Similarities and Differences between Evolutionary
    Processes in Linguistics and Biology
    Johann-Mattis List
    DFG research fellow
    Centre des recherches linguistiques sur l’Asie Orientale
    Team Adaptation, Integration, Reticulation, Evolution
    EHESS and UPMC, Paris
    2015/05/27
    1 / 45

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  2. Languages
    语言
    language
    1
    язык
    språk
    1
    Languages
    2 / 45

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  3. Languages What is a Language?
    What is a Language?
    Norwegian, Swedish, and Danish are different languages
    .
    .
    Běijīng-Chinese, Shànghǎi-Chinese und Hakka-Chinese are
    dialects of the same language
    3 / 45

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  4. Languages What is a Language?
    What is a Language?
    Běijīng Chinese 1 iou²¹ i⁵⁵ xuei³⁵ pei²¹fəŋ⁵⁵ kən⁵⁵ tʰai⁵¹iaŋ¹¹ t͡ʂəŋ⁵⁵ ʦai⁵³ naɚ⁵¹ t͡ʂəŋ⁵⁵luən⁵¹
    Hakka Chinese 1 iu³³ it⁵⁵ pai³³a¹¹ pet³³fuŋ³³ tʰuŋ¹¹ ɲit¹¹tʰeu¹¹ hɔk³³ e⁵³ au⁵⁵
    Shànghǎi Chinese 1 ɦi²² tʰɑ̃⁵⁵ ʦɿ²¹ poʔ³foŋ⁴⁴ taʔ⁵ tʰa³³ɦiã⁴⁴ ʦəŋ³³ hɔ⁴⁴ ləʔ¹lə²³ʦa⁵³
    Běijīng Chinese 2 ʂei³⁵ də⁵⁵ pən³⁵ liŋ²¹ ta⁵¹
    Hakka Chinese 2 man³³ ɲin¹¹ kʷɔ⁵⁵ vɔi⁵³
    Shànghǎi Chinese 2 sa³³ ɲiŋ⁵⁵ ɦəʔ²¹ pəŋ³³ zɿ⁴⁴ du¹³
    Norwegian 1 nuːɾɑʋinˑn̩ ɔ suːln̩ kɾɑŋlət ɔm
    Swedish 1 nuːɖanvɪndən ɔ suːlən tv̥ɪstadə ən gɔŋ ɔm
    Danish 1 noʌ̯ʌnvenˀn̩ ʌ soːl̩ˀn kʰʌm eŋg̊ɑŋ i sd̥ʁiðˀ ʌmˀ
    Norwegian 2 ʋem ɑ dem sɱ̩ ʋɑː ɖɳ̩ stæɾ̥kəstə
    Swedish 2 vɛm ɑv dɔm sɔm vɑ staɹkast
    Danish 2 vɛmˀ a b̥m̩ d̥ vɑ d̥n̩ sd̥æʌ̯g̊əsd̥ə
    4 / 45

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  5. Languages What is a Language?
    What is a Language?
    From the perspective of the lexicon and the sound system, the
    Chinese dialects are at least as diverse as the Scandinavian
    languages
    4 / 45

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  6. Languages Language as a Diasystem
    Language as a Diasystem
    Languages are complex aggregates of different linguistic
    systems which “coexist and mutually influence each other”
    (Coseriu 1973: 40, my translation).
    .
    .
    5 / 45

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  7. Languages Language as a Diasystem
    Language as a Diasystem
    Standard Language
    Diatopic Varieties
    Diastratic Varieties
    Diaphasic Varieties
    5 / 45

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  8. Languages Language Variation
    Language Variation: Dimensions
    LANGUAGE
    6 / 45

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  9. Languages Language Variation
    Language Variation: Dimensions
    LANGUAGE
    diatopic
    place
    6 / 45

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  10. Languages Language Variation
    Language Variation: Dimensions
    LANGUAGE
    diastratic diatopic
    social layer place
    6 / 45

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  11. Languages Language Variation
    Language Variation: Dimensions
    LANGUAGE
    diastratic diatopic
    diaphasic
    social layer place
    situation
    6 / 45

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  12. Languages Language Variation
    Language Variation: Dimensions
    LANGUAGE
    diastratic diatopic
    diaphasic
    diam
    esic
    social layer place
    situation
    m
    edium
    6 / 45

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  13. Languages Language Variation
    Language Variation: Dimensions
    LANGUAGE
    diachronic
    diastratic diatopic
    diaphasic
    diam
    esic
    time
    social layer place
    situation
    m
    edium
    6 / 45

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  14. Languages Language Variation
    Language Variation: Dimensions
    LANGUAGE
    diachronic
    diastratic diatopic
    diaphasic
    diam
    esic
    6 / 45

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  15. Languages Language Variation
    Language Variation: Complexity of Borrowing
    7 / 45

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  16. Languages Language Variation
    Language Variation: Complexity of Borrowing
    expected Mandarin [ma₅₅po₂₁lou]
    7 / 45

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  17. Languages Language Variation
    Language Variation: Complexity of Borrowing
    expected Mandarin [ma₅₅po₂₁lou]
    attested Mandarin [wan₅₁paw₂₁lu₅₁]
    7 / 45

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  18. Languages Language Variation
    Language Variation: Complexity of Borrowing
    expected Mandarin [ma₅₅po₂₁lou]
    attested Mandarin [wan₅₁paw₂₁lu₅₁]
    explanation Cantonese [maːn₂₂pow₃₅low₃₂]
    7 / 45

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  19. Languages Language Variation
    Language Variation: Complexity of Borrowing
    English Cantonese Mandarin
    maːlboʁo maːn22pow35low32 wan51paw21lu51
    Proper Name
    “Road of 10 000
    treasures”
    “Road of 10 000
    treasures”
    万宝路
    8 / 45

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  20. Language History
    Language History
    9 / 45

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  21. Language History Modeling Language History
    Modeling Language History: Dendrophilia
    August Schleicher
    (1821-1868)
    10 / 45

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  22. Language History Modeling Language History
    Modeling Language History: Dendrophilia
    August Schleicher
    (1821-1868)
    “These assumptions, which follow
    logically from the results of our re-
    search, can be best illustrated by the
    image of a branching tree.” (Schle-
    icher 1853: 787)
    10 / 45

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  23. Language History Modeling Language History
    Dendrophilia
    Schleicher (1853)
    11 / 45

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  24. Language History Modeling Language History
    Modeling Language History: Dendrophobia
    Johannes Schmidt
    (1843-1901)
    12 / 45

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  25. Language History Modeling Language History
    Modeling Language History: Dendrophobia
    Johannes Schmidt
    (1843-1901)
    “You can turn it as you want, but as long
    as you stick to the idea that the his-
    torically attested languages have been
    developing by multiple furcations of an
    ancestral language, that is, as long as
    you assume that there is a Stammbaum
    [family tree] of the Indo-European lan-
    guages, you will never be able to explain
    all facts which have been assembled in
    a scientifically satisfying way.” (Schmidt
    1872: 17, my translation)
    12 / 45

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  26. Language History Modeling Language History
    Modeling Language History: Dendrophobia
    Johannes Schmidt
    (1843-1901)
    “I want to replace [the tree] by the im-
    age of a wave that spreads out from
    the center in concentric circles be-
    coming weaker and weaker the far-
    ther they get away from the center.”
    (Schmidt 1872: 27, my translation)
    13 / 45

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  27. Language History Modeling Language History
    Modeling Language History: Dendrophobia
    Schmidt (1875)
    14 / 45

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  28. Language History Modeling Language History
    Modeling Language History: Dendrophobia
    Meillet (1908)
    Hirt (1905)
    Bloomfield (1933)
    Bonfante (1931)
    15 / 45

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  29. Language History Lexical Change
    Lexical Change
    'soh₂-wl̩- sh₂uˈen-
    SUN
    Indo-European
    16 / 45

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  30. Language History Lexical Change
    Lexical Change
    'soh₂-wl̩- sh₂uˈen-
    SUN
    Indo-European
    soːwel- sunːoː-
    SUN
    Germanic
    16 / 45

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  31. Language History Lexical Change
    Lexical Change
    'soh₂-wl̩- sh₂uˈen-
    SUN
    Indo-European
    soːwel- sunːoː-
    SUN
    Germanic
    zɔnə
    SUN
    German
    suːl
    SUN
    Swedish
    16 / 45

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  32. Language History Lexical Change
    Lexical Change
    'soh₂-wl̩- sh₂uˈen-
    SUN
    Indo-European
    soːwel- sunːoː-
    SUN
    Germanic
    soːl-
    SUN
    Romance
    zɔnə
    SUN
    German
    suːl
    SUN
    Swedish
    16 / 45

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  33. Language History Lexical Change
    Lexical Change
    'soh₂-wl̩- sh₂uˈen-
    SUN
    Indo-European
    soːwel- sunːoː-
    SUN
    Germanic
    soːl-
    SUN
    soːlikul-
    SMALL SUN
    Romance
    zɔnə
    SUN
    German
    suːl
    SUN
    Swedish
    16 / 45

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  34. Language History Lexical Change
    Lexical Change
    'soh₂-wl̩- sh₂uˈen-
    SUN
    Indo-European
    soːwel- sunːoː-
    SUN
    Germanic
    soːl-
    SUN
    soːlikul-
    SMALL SUN
    Romance
    solej
    SUN
    French
    sol
    SUN
    Spanish
    zɔnə
    SUN
    German
    suːl
    SUN
    Swedish
    16 / 45

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  35. Language History Lexical Change
    Lexical Change
    'soh₂-wl◌̩
    - sh₂uˈen-
    SUN
    Indo-European
    soːwel- sunːoː-
    SUN
    Germanic
    soːl-
    SUN
    soːlikul-
    SMALL SUN
    Romance
    solej
    SUN
    French
    sol
    SUN
    Spanish
    zɔnə
    SUN
    German
    suːl
    SUN
    Swedish
    SEM
    ANTIC
    SHIFT
    M
    O
    RPH
    O
    LO
    G
    ICAL
    CH
    AN
    G
    E
    M
    O
    R
    PH
    O
    LO
    G
    ICA
    L
    CH
    A
    N
    G
    E
    MORPHOLOGICAL
    CHANGE
    MORPHOLOGICAL
    CHANGE
    16 / 45

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  36. Language History Lexical Change
    Lexical Change
    arbre
    17 / 45

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  37. Language History Lexical Change
    Lexical Change
    form
    "meaning"
    17 / 45

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  38. Language History Lexical Change
    Lexical Change
    arbre
    17 / 45

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  39. Language History Lexical Change
    Lexical Change
    17 / 45

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  40. Language History Lexical Change
    Lexical Change
    arbre
    MEANING
    FORM
    LANGUAGE
    17 / 45

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  41. Language History Lexical Change
    Lexical Change
    FORM
    LANGUAGE
    MEANING
    arbre
    17 / 45

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  42. Language History Lexical Change
    Lexical Change
    arbre
    MEANING
    FORM
    LANGUAGE
    MEANING
    FORM
    LANGUAGE
    17 / 45

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  43. Language History Lexical Change
    Lexical Change
    SEMANTIC CHANGE
    MORPHOLOGICAL CHANGE
    S
    T
    R
    A
    T
    IC
    C
    H
    A
    N
    G
    E
    Gévaudan (2007)
    17 / 45

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  44. Language History Lexical Change
    Lexical Change
    kop
    Kopf
    Kopf
    köpfen
    World
    Cup Welt-
    ccup
    Old High German Standard German
    MORPHOLOGICAL
    CHANGE
    SEMANTIC
    CHANGE
    SEMANTIC
    CHANGE
    STRATIC
    CHANGE
    MORPHOLOGICAL
    CHANGE
    17 / 45

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  45. Language History Sound Change
    Sound Change
    Meaning Latin Italian
    ‘FEATHER’ pluːma pjuma
    ‘FLAT’ plaːnus pjano
    ‘SQUARE’ plateːa pjaʦːa
    18 / 45

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  46. Language History Sound Change
    Sound Change
    Meaning Latin Italian
    ‘FEATHER’ pluːma pjuma
    ‘FLAT’ plaːnus pjano
    ‘SQUARE’ plateːa pjaʦːa
    l > j
    18 / 45

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  47. Language History Sound Change
    Sound Change
    Meaning Latin Italian
    ‘FEATHER’ pluːma pjuma
    ‘FLAT’ plaːnus pjano
    ‘SQUARE’ plateːa pjaʦːa
    Meaning Latin Italian
    ‘TONGUE’ liŋgua liŋgwa
    ‘MOON’ lu:na luna
    ‘SLOW’ lentus lento
    l > j
    18 / 45

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  48. Language History Sound Change
    Sound Change
    Meaning Latin Italian
    ‘FEATHER’ pluːma pjuma
    ‘FLAT’ plaːnus pjano
    ‘SQUARE’ plateːa pjaʦːa
    Meaning Latin Italian
    ‘TONGUE’ liŋgua liŋgwa
    ‘MOON’ lu:na luna
    ‘SLOW’ lentus lento
    l > j l > l
    18 / 45

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  49. Language History Sound Change
    Sound Change
    Meaning Latin Italian
    ‘FEATHER’ pluːma pjuma
    ‘FLAT’ plaːnus pjano
    ‘SQUARE’ plateːa pjaʦːa
    Meaning Latin Italian
    ‘TONGUE’ liŋgua liŋgwa
    ‘MOON’ lu:na luna
    ‘SLOW’ lentus lento
    l > j l > l
    l > j / p _
    18 / 45

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  50. Language History Sound Change
    Sound Change
    Meaning Latin Italian
    ‘FEATHER’ pluːma pjuma
    ‘FLAT’ plaːnus pjano
    ‘SQUARE’ plateːa pjaʦːa
    Meaning Latin Italian
    ‘TONGUE’ liŋgua liŋgwa
    ‘MOON’ lu:na luna
    ‘SLOW’ lentus lento
    l > j l > l
    l > j / p _
    Not sounds change, sound systems change (Bloomfield 1933)!
    18 / 45

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  51. Language History Sound Change
    Sound Change
    Meaning Latin Italian
    ‘FEATHER’ pluːma pjuma
    ‘FLAT’ plaːnus pjano
    ‘SQUARE’ plateːa pjaʦːa
    Meaning Latin Italian
    ‘TONGUE’ liŋgua liŋgwa
    ‘MOON’ lu:na luna
    ‘SLOW’ lentus lento
    l > j l > l
    l > j / p _
    Not sounds change, sound systems change (Bloomfield 1933)!
    Sound change depends on the context in which the sounds occur!
    18 / 45

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  52. Language History Sound Change
    Sound Change
    Cognate List Alignment Correspondence List
    German dünn d ʏ n GER ENG Frequ.
    d θ 2 x
    d d 1 x
    n n 1 x
    m m 1 x
    ŋ ŋ 1 x
    English thin θ ɪ n
    German Ding d ɪ ŋ
    English thing θ ɪ ŋ
    German dumm d ʊ m
    English dumb d ʌ m
    German Dorn d ɔɐ n
    English thorn d ɔː n
    19 / 45

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  53. Language History Sound Change
    Sound Change
    Cognate List Alignment Correspondence List
    German dünn d ʏ n GER ENG Frequ.
    d θ 3 x
    d d 1 x
    n n 1 x
    m m 1 x
    ŋ ŋ 1 x
    English thin θ ɪ n
    German Ding d ɪ ŋ
    English thing θ ɪ ŋ
    German dumm d ʊ m
    English dumb d ʌ m
    German Dorn d ɔɐ n
    English thorn d ɔː n
    19 / 45

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  54. Language History Sound Change
    Sound Change
    Cognate List Alignment Correspondence List
    German dünn d ʏ n GER ENG Frequ.
    d θ 3 x
    d d 1 x
    n n 1 x
    m m 1 x
    ŋ ŋ 1 x
    English thin θ ɪ n
    German Ding d ɪ ŋ
    English thing θ ɪ ŋ
    German dumm d ʊ m
    English dumb d ʌ m
    German Dorn d ɔɐ n
    English thorn d ɔː n
    19 / 45

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  55. Language History Sound Change
    Sound Change
    Cognate List Alignment Correspondence List
    German dünn d ʏ n GER ENG Frequ.
    d θ 2 x
    d d 1 x
    n n 1 x
    m m 1 x
    ŋ ŋ 1 x
    English thin θ ɪ n
    German Ding d ɪ ŋ
    English thing θ ɪ ŋ
    German dumm d ʊ m
    English dumb d ʌ m
    German Dorn d ɔɐ n
    English thorn θ ɔː n
    19 / 45

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  56. Language History Sound Change
    Sound Change
    Cognate List Alignment Correspondence List
    German dünn d ʏ n GER ENG Frequ.
    d θ 3 x
    d d 1 x ?
    n n 2 x
    m m 1 x
    ŋ ŋ 1 x
    English thin θ ɪ n
    German Ding d ɪ ŋ
    English thing θ ɪ ŋ
    German dumm d ʊ m
    English dumb d ʌ m
    German Dorn d ɔɐ n
    English thorn θ ɔː n
    19 / 45

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  57. Language History Sound Change
    Sound Change
    Cognate List Alignment Correspondence List
    German dünn d ʏ n GER ENG Frequ.
    d θ 3 x
    d d 1 x
    n n 2 x
    m m 1 x
    ŋ ŋ 1 x
    English thin θ ɪ n
    German Ding d ɪ ŋ
    English thing θ ɪ ŋ
    German dumm d ʊ m
    English dumb d ʌ m
    German Dorn d ɔɐ n
    English thorn θ ɔː n
    19 / 45

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  58. Language History Sound Change
    Sound Change
    Cognate List Alignment Correspondence List
    German dünn d ʏ n GER ENG Frequ.
    d θ 3 x
    n n 2 x
    ŋ ŋ 1 x
    English thin θ ɪ n
    German Ding d ɪ ŋ
    English thing θ ɪ ŋ
    German Dorn d ɔɐ n
    English thorn θ ɔː n
    German dumm d ʊ m
    English dumb d ʌ m
    19 / 45

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  59. Linguistics and Biology
    Linguistics and Biology
    20 / 45

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  60. Linguistics and Biology Keys to the Past
    Keys to the Past
    The Geological Evidences
    of
    The Antiquity of Man
    with Remarks on Theories of
    The Origin of Species by Variation
    By Sir Charles Lyell
    London
    John Murray, Albemarle Street
    1863
    21 / 45

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  61. Linguistics and Biology Keys to the Past
    Keys to the Past
    If we new not-
    hing of the existence
    of Latin, - if all
    historical documents
    previous to the fin-
    teenth century had
    been lost, - if tra-
    dition even was si-
    lent as to the former
    existance of a Ro-
    man empire, a me-
    re comparison of the
    Italian, Spanish,
    Portuguese, French,
    Wallachian, and
    Rhaetian dialects
    would enable us to
    say that at some
    time there must ha-
    ve been a language,
    from which these
    six modern dialects
    derive their origin
    in common.
    21 / 45

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  62. Linguistics and Biology Keys to the Past
    Keys to the Past: Uniformitarianism (Charles Lyell)
    22 / 45

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  63. Linguistics and Biology Keys to the Past
    Keys to the Past: Uniformitarianism (Charles Lyell)
    Uniformity of Change: Laws of change are uniform. They have
    applied in the past as they apply now and will apply in the future, no
    matter at which place.
    22 / 45

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  64. Linguistics and Biology Keys to the Past
    Keys to the Past: Uniformitarianism (Charles Lyell)
    Uniformity of Change: Laws of change are uniform. They have
    applied in the past as they apply now and will apply in the future, no
    matter at which place.
    Graduality of Change: Change proceeds gradually, not abrupt.
    22 / 45

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  65. Linguistics and Biology Keys to the Past
    Keys to the Past: Uniformitarianism (Charles Lyell)
    Uniformity of Change: Laws of change are uniform. They have
    applied in the past as they apply now and will apply in the future, no
    matter at which place.
    Graduality of Change: Change proceeds gradually, not abrupt.
    Abductive Reasoning: We can infer past events and processes by
    investigating patterns observed in the present, which becomes the
    “key to the interpretation of some mystery in the archives of remote
    ages” (Lyell 1830: 165)
    22 / 45

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  66. Linguistics and Biology Keys to the Past
    Keys to the Past: Uniformitarianism (August Schleicher)
    Language Change
    is a gradual process (Schleicher 1848: 25).
    is a law-like process (Schleicher 1848: 25).
    is a natural process which occurs in all languages (Schleicher 1848:
    25).
    universal process which occurs in all times (Schleicher 1863[1873]:
    10f).
    allows us to infer past processes and extinct languages by
    investigating the languages of the present (see Schleicher 1848:
    25).
    23 / 45

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  67. Linguistics and Biology Keys to the Past
    Keys to the Past: Summary
    It was not the direct exchange of ideas that lead to the devel-
    opment of similar approaches in biology and linguistics, but
    the astonishing fact that scholars in both fields would at about
    the same time detect striking parallels between both disci-
    plines, both regarding their theoretical foundations and the
    processes they were investigating.
    24 / 45

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  68. Linguistics and Biology Keys to the Past
    Keys to the Past: Summary
    It was not the direct exchange of ideas that lead to the devel-
    opment of similar approaches in biology and linguistics, but
    the astonishing fact that scholars in both fields would at about
    the same time detect striking parallels between both disci-
    plines, both regarding their theoretical foundations and the
    processes they were investigating.
    And linguists were the first to draw trees!
    24 / 45

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  69. Linguistics and Biology The Quantitative Turn
    The Quantitative Turn
    “Indo-European and computational cladistics” (Ringe, Warnow and Taylor
    2002)
    “Language-tree divergence times support the Anatolian theory of
    Indo-European origin” (Gray und Atkinson 2003)
    “Language classification by numbers” (McMahon und McMahon 2005)
    “Curious Parallels and Curious Connections: Phylogenetic Thinking in
    Biology and Historical Linguistics” (Atkinson und Gray 2005)
    “Automated classification of the world’s languages” (Brown et al. 2008)
    “Indo-European languages tree by Levenshtein distance” (Serva and
    Petroni 2008)
    “Networks uncover hidden lexical borrowing in Indo-European language
    evolution” (Nelson-Sathi et al. 2011)
    25 / 45

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  70. Linguistics and Biology The Quantitative Turn
    The Quantitative Turn
    “Indo-European and computational cladistics” (Ringe, Warnow and Taylor
    2002)
    “Language-tree divergence times support the Anatolian theory of
    Indo-European origin” (Gray und Atkinson 2003)
    “Language classification by numbers” (McMahon und McMahon 2005)
    “Curious Parallels and Curious Connections: Phylogenetic Thinking in
    Biology and Historical Linguistics” (Atkinson und Gray 2005)
    “Automated classification of the world’s languages” (Brown et al. 2008)
    “Indo-European languages tree by Levenshtein distance” (Serva and
    Petroni 2008)
    “Networks uncover hidden lexical borrowing in Indo-European language
    evolution” (Nelson-Sathi et al. 2011)
    25 / 45

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  71. Linguistics and Biology The Quantitative Turn
    The Quantitative Turn: Words as Genes
    Basic Concept German ID English ID Italian ID French ID
    HAND Hand 1 hand 1 mano 2 main 2
    BLOOD Blut 3 blood 3 sangue 4 sang 4
    HEAD Kopf 5 head 6 testa 7 tête 7
    TOOTH Zahn 8 tooth 8 dente 8 dent 8
    TO SLEEP schlafen 9 sleep 9 dormir 10 dormir 10
    TO SAY sagen 11 say 11 dire 12 dire 12
    ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
    26 / 45

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  72. Linguistics and Biology The Quantitative Turn
    The Quantitative Turn: Words as Genes
    Basic Concept German ID English ID Italian ID French ID
    HAND Hand 1 hand 1 mano 2 main 2
    BLOOD Blut 3 blood 3 sangue 4 sang 4
    HEAD Kopf 5 head 6 testa 7 tête 7
    TOOTH Zahn 8 tooth 8 dente 8 dent 8
    TO SLEEP schlafen 9 sleep 9 dormir 10 dormir 10
    TO SAY sagen 11 say 11 dire 12 dire 12
    ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
    26 / 45

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  73. Linguistics and Biology The Quantitative Turn
    The Quantitative Turn: Words as Genes
    ID Proto-Form Basic Concept German English Italian French
    1 PGM *xanda- HAND 1 1 0 0
    2 LAT mānus HAND 0 0 1 1
    3 PGM *blođa- BLOOD 1 1 0 0
    4 LAT sanguis BLOOD 0 0 1 1
    5 PGM *kuppa- HEAD 1 0 0 0
    6 PGM *xawbda- HEAD 0 1 0 0
    7 LAT tēsta HEAD 0 0 1 1
    8 PIE *h3
    dont- TOOTH 1 1 1 1
    9 PGM *slēpan- TO SLEEP 1 1 0 0
    10 LAT dormīre TO SLEEP 0 0 1 1
    11 PGM *sagjan- TO SAY 1 1 0 0
    12 LAT dīcere TO SAY 0 0 1 1
    ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
    26 / 45

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  74. Linguistics and Biology The Quantitative Turn
    The Quantitative Turn: Words as Genes
    English
    111
    German
    101
    French
    000
    Italian
    001
    101 001
    001
    + B
    − C
    +
    A
    Char. English German French Italian
    A 1 1 0 0
    B 1 0 0 0
    C 1 1 0 1
    26 / 45

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  75. Linguistics and Biology The Quantitative Turn
    The Quantitative Turn: Sounds as Nuclein Bases
    Concept
    German
    English
    Italian
    French
    “HAND” G E I F
    Hand 0 1 2 3
    hand 1 0 2 3
    mano 2 2 0 2
    main 3 3 2 0
    “BLOOD” G E I F
    Blut 0 4 5 4
    blood 4 0 6 5
    sangue 5 6 0 2
    sang 4 5 2 0
    Edit Distances between Orthographic Entries
    27 / 45

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  76. Linguistics and Biology The Quantitative Turn
    The Quantitative Turn: Sounds as Nuclein Bases
    German English Italian French
    German 0 30 60 55
    English 30 0 60 50
    Italian 60 60 0 20
    French 55 50 20 0
    27 / 45

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  77. Linguistics and Biology Analogies and Parallels
    Analogies and Parallels
    Parallels between Species and Languages (Pagel 2009)
    aspect species languages
    unit of replication gene word
    replication asexual und sexual
    reproduction
    learning
    speciation cladogenesis language split
    forces of change natural selection and
    genetic drift
    social selection and
    trends
    differentiation tree-like tree-like
    28 / 45

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  78. Linguistics and Biology Analogies and Parallels
    Analogies and Parallels
    29 / 45

    View Slide

  79. Linguistics and Biology Analogies and Parallels
    Analogies and Parallels
    29 / 45

    View Slide

  80. Linguistics and Biology Analogies and Parallels
    Analogies and Parallels
    29 / 45

    View Slide

  81. Linguistics and Biology Analogies and Parallels
    Analogies and Parallels
    Differences between Species and Languages (Geisler & List 2013)
    Aspect Species Languages
    domain Popper’s World I Popper’s World III
    relation between
    form and function
    mechanical arbitrary
    origin monogenesis unclear
    sequence similarity universal (indepen-
    dent of species)
    language-specific
    differentiation tree-like network-like
    30 / 45

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  82. Linguistics and Biology Differences
    Differences in the Alphabets
    31 / 45

    View Slide

  83. Linguistics and Biology Differences
    Differences in the Alphabets
    • universal • language-specific
    31 / 45

    View Slide

  84. Linguistics and Biology Differences
    Differences in the Alphabets
    • universal • language-specific
    • limited • widely varying
    31 / 45

    View Slide

  85. Linguistics and Biology Differences
    Differences in the Alphabets
    • universal • language-specific
    • limited • widely varying
    • constant • mutable
    31 / 45

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  86. Linguistics and Biology Differences
    Differences in the Alphabets
    • universal • language-specific
    • limited • widely varying
    • constant • mutable
    In order to identify homologous words in different languages,
    corresponding segments and mappings between the alpha-
    bets have to be identified. Phonetic alignment is thus similar
    to the task of aligning two sequences which have been drawn
    from
    two different alphabets!
    31 / 45

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  87. Linguistics and Biology Differences
    Differences in the Differentiation Process
    Of the 1,000 most frequent Latin words (Stefenelli 1992),
    67% were directly inherited in at least one of the descendant
    languages of Latin,
    14% were directly inherited in all descendant languages,
    only 33% are completely lost,
    about 50% of the words survive as borrowings from Latin in the
    descendant languages
    32 / 45

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  88. Linguistics and Biology Differences
    Differences in the Differentiation Process
    Of the 1,000 most frequent Latin words (Stefenelli 1992),
    67% were directly inherited in at least one of the descendant
    languages of Latin,
    14% were directly inherited in all descendant languages,
    only 33% are completely lost,
    about 50% of the words survive as borrowings from Latin in the
    descendant languages
    Saying that languages evolve in tree-like processes is similar
    to saying that penguins walk: It may be true, but it’s only a
    part of the whole interesting story.
    32 / 45

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  89. Linguistics and Biology Differences
    Differences in the Change Processes
    GENES <=> WORDS
    HOMOLOGS <=> COGNATES
    33 / 45

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  90. Linguistics and Biology Differences
    Differences in the Change Processes
    Relations in Biology Relations in Linguistics
    direct cognate relation
    homology
    orthology
    etymological relation
    cognate relation
    indirect cognate
    relation
    paralogy
    xenology
    indirect etymological
    relation
    ?
    ?
    ?
    33 / 45

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  91. Linguistics and Biology Differences
    Differences in the Change Processes
    Indo-European Latin Romance
    ti
    no
    to
    *d(e)h
    3
    ø
    datum
    “given”
    dōnāre
    “to present”
    dōnum
    “gift”
    dare
    “to give”
    dōs
    “dowry”
    date
    “date”
    French
    douna
    “to give”
    Provencal
    don
    “gift”
    Spanish
    dar
    “to give”
    Portuguese
    dote
    “dowry”
    Italian
    33 / 45

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  92. Linguistics and Biology Differences
    Differences in the Change Processes
    kurz
    'short'
    BORROWING
    INHERITANCE
    INHERITANCE INHERITANCE
    German
    short
    'short'
    English
    *skurt-
    'short'
    Proto-Germanic
    cǔrtus
    'mutilated'
    Latin
    *(s)ker-
    'cut off'
    Proto-Indo-European
    33 / 45

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  93. Linguistics and Biology Differences
    Differences in the Change Processes
    Relations in Biology Relations in Linguistics
    direct cognate relation
    homology
    orthology
    etymological relation
    cognate relation
    indirect cognate
    relation
    paralogy
    xenology
    indirect etymological
    relation
    33 / 45

    View Slide

  94. Linguistics and Biology Differences
    Differences in the Change Processes
    Relations in Biology Relations in Linguistics
    direct cognate relation
    homology
    orthology
    etymological relation
    cognate relation
    indirect cognate
    relation
    paralogy
    xenology
    indirect etymological
    relation
    There’s a great difference between the change processes we
    encode in linguistic datasets and the change processes that
    are modeled by biological software packages. Gain-loss pro-
    cesses are far too simple to model the complex relations be-
    tween cognate words.
    33 / 45

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  95. Shifting the Paradigm
    Shifting the Paradigm
    34 / 45

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  96. Shifting the Paradigm Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution
    Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution
    Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Evolution
    Eukaryotic populations generate tree-like divergence structures over
    time, while genome evolution in prokaryotes generates both tree-like and
    net-like components.
    35 / 45

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  97. Shifting the Paradigm Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution
    Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution
    Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Evolution
    Eukaryotic populations generate tree-like divergence structures over
    time, while genome evolution in prokaryotes generates both tree-like and
    net-like components.
    Evolution and Language History
    Recalling the scores on borrowing frequency in the descendant
    languages of Latin, it seems obvious that language history shows a
    much closer resemblance to prokaryotic evolution than to eukaryotic
    evolution. When trying to apply methods from bioinformatics to linguistic
    problems, it seems therefore more fruitful to use those methods that
    explicitly deal with prokaryotic evolution.
    35 / 45

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  98. Shifting the Paradigm Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution
    Minimal Lateral Networks (List et al. 2014)
    36 / 45

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  99. Shifting the Paradigm Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution
    Minimal Lateral Networks (List et al. 2014)
    -- Spanish
    --
    French
    --
    Italian
    Danish
    --
    English --
    German
    --
    36 / 45

    View Slide

  100. Shifting the Paradigm Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution
    Minimal Lateral Networks (List et al. 2014)
    -- Spanish
    --
    French
    --
    Italian
    Danish
    --
    English --
    German
    --
    36 / 45

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  101. Shifting the Paradigm Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution
    Minimal Lateral Networks (List et al. 2014)
    -- Spanish
    --
    French
    --
    Italian
    Danish
    --
    English --
    German
    --
    36 / 45

    View Slide

  102. Shifting the Paradigm Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution
    Minimal Lateral Networks (List et al. 2014)
    -- Spanish
    --
    French
    --
    Italian
    Danish
    --
    English --
    German
    --
    36 / 45

    View Slide

  103. Shifting the Paradigm Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution
    Minimal Lateral Networks (List et al. 2014)
    .
    .
    ---Lánzhōu
    .
    Fùzhōu --
    .
    Xiāngtàn --
    .
    M
    ěixiàn
    --
    .
    H
    ongkong
    --
    .
    ---Wǔhàn
    .
    ---Běijīng
    .
    ---Kùnmíng
    .
    Hángzhōu
    --
    .
    Xiàmén --
    .
    ---Chéngdū
    .
    Sùzhōu
    --
    .
    Shànghǎi --
    .
    Táiběi --
    .
    ---Zhèngzhōu
    .
    Shèxiàn --
    .
    ---Nánjīng
    .
    ---Guìyáng
    .
    W
    énzhōu
    --
    .
    N
    ánníng
    --
    .
    Tūnxī --
    .
    ---Tiānjìn
    .
    Shāntóu --
    .
    ---Xīníng
    .
    ---Q
    īngdǎo
    .
    ---Ürüm
    qi
    .
    ---Píngyáo
    .
    Nánchàng --
    .
    ---Tàiyuán
    .
    Chángshā --
    .
    Hǎikǒu --
    .
    ---Héfèi
    .
    Jiàn'ǒu --
    .
    ---Yīnchuàn
    .
    ---Hohhot
    .
    Táoyuán --
    .
    ---Xī'ān
    .
    G
    uǎngzhōu
    --
    .
    ---Harbin
    .
    ---Jìnán
    .
    0
    .
    0
    .
    0
    .
    Inferred Links
    Reference tree of the Chinese dialects
    37 / 45

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  104. Shifting the Paradigm Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution
    Minimal Lateral Networks (List et al. 2014)
    .
    .
    ---Lánzhōu
    .
    Fùzhōu --
    .
    Xiāngtàn --
    .
    M
    ěixiàn
    --
    .
    H
    ongkong
    --
    .
    ---Wǔhàn
    .
    ---Běijīng
    .
    ---Kùnmíng
    .
    Hángzhōu
    --
    .
    Xiàmén --
    .
    ---Chéngdū
    .
    Sùzhōu
    --
    .
    Shànghǎi --
    .
    Táiběi --
    .
    ---Zhèngzhōu
    .
    Shèxiàn --
    .
    ---Nánjīng
    .
    ---Guìyáng
    .
    W
    énzhōu
    --
    .
    N
    ánníng
    --
    .
    Tūnxī --
    .
    ---Tiānjìn
    .
    Shāntóu --
    .
    ---Xīníng
    .
    ---Q
    īngdǎo
    .
    ---Ürüm
    qi
    .
    ---Píngyáo
    .
    Nánchàng --
    .
    ---Tàiyuán
    .
    Chángshā --
    .
    Hǎikǒu --
    .
    ---Héfèi
    .
    Jiàn'ǒu --
    .
    ---Yīnchuàn
    .
    ---Hohhot
    .
    Táoyuán --
    .
    ---Xī'ān
    .
    G
    uǎngzhōu
    --
    .
    ---Harbin
    .
    ---Jìnán
    .
    0
    .
    0
    .
    0
    .
    Inferred Links
    MLN analysis, no borrowing allowed
    37 / 45

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  105. Shifting the Paradigm Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution
    Minimal Lateral Networks (List et al. 2014)
    .
    .
    ---Lánzhōu
    .
    Fùzhōu --
    .
    Xiāngtàn --
    .
    M
    ěixiàn
    --
    .
    H
    ongkong
    --
    .
    ---Wǔhàn
    .
    ---Běijīng
    .
    ---Kùnmíng
    .
    Hángzhōu
    --
    .
    Xiàmén --
    .
    ---Chéngdū
    .
    Sùzhōu
    --
    .
    Shànghǎi --
    .
    Táiběi --
    .
    ---Zhèngzhōu
    .
    Shèxiàn --
    .
    ---Nánjīng
    .
    ---Guìyáng
    .
    W
    énzhōu
    --
    .
    N
    ánníng
    --
    .
    Tūnxī --
    .
    ---Tiānjìn
    .
    Shāntóu --
    .
    ---Xīníng
    .
    ---Q
    īngdǎo
    .
    ---Ürüm
    qi
    .
    ---Píngyáo
    .
    Nánchàng --
    .
    ---Tàiyuán
    .
    Chángshā --
    .
    Hǎikǒu --
    .
    ---Héfèi
    .
    Jiàn'ǒu --
    .
    ---Yīnchuàn
    .
    ---Hohhot
    .
    Táoyuán --
    .
    ---Xī'ān
    .
    G
    uǎngzhōu
    --
    .
    ---Harbin
    .
    ---Jìnán
    .
    1
    .
    10
    .
    20
    .
    Inferred Links
    MLN analysis, borrowing favored
    37 / 45

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  106. Shifting the Paradigm Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution
    Minimal Lateral Networks (List et al. 2014)
    .
    .
    ---Lánzhōu
    .
    Fùzhōu --
    .
    Xiāngtàn --
    .
    M
    ěixiàn
    --
    .
    H
    ongkong
    --
    .
    ---Wǔhàn
    .
    ---Běijīng
    .
    ---Kùnmíng
    .
    Hángzhōu
    --
    .
    Xiàmén --
    .
    ---Chéngdū
    .
    Sùzhōu
    --
    .
    Shànghǎi --
    .
    Táiběi --
    .
    ---Zhèngzhōu
    .
    Shèxiàn --
    .
    ---Nánjīng
    .
    ---Guìyáng
    .
    W
    énzhōu
    --
    .
    N
    ánníng
    --
    .
    Tūnxī --
    .
    ---Tiānjìn
    .
    Shāntóu --
    .
    ---Xīníng
    .
    ---Q
    īngdǎo
    .
    ---Ürüm
    qi
    .
    ---Píngyáo
    .
    Nánchàng --
    .
    ---Tàiyuán
    .
    Chángshā --
    .
    Hǎikǒu --
    .
    ---Héfèi
    .
    Jiàn'ǒu --
    .
    ---Yīnchuàn
    .
    ---Hohhot
    .
    Táoyuán --
    .
    ---Xī'ān
    .
    G
    uǎngzhōu
    --
    .
    ---Harbin
    .
    ---Jìnán
    .
    1
    .
    4
    .
    8
    .
    Inferred Links
    MLN analysis, best fit of borrowing and inheritance
    37 / 45

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  107. Shifting the Paradigm Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution
    Minimal Lateral Networks (List et al. 2014)
    .
    .
    Guānhuà
    .
    Xiàng
    .
    Mǐn
    .
    Yuè
    .

    .
    Jìn
    .
    Kèjiā
    .
    Gàn
    .
    Huī
    .
    1
    .
    2
    .
    3
    .
    4
    .
    5
    .
    6
    .
    7
    .
    8
    .
    9
    .
    10
    .
    11
    .
    12
    .
    13
    .
    14
    .
    15
    .
    16
    .
    17
    .
    18
    .
    19
    .
    20
    .
    21
    .
    22
    .
    23
    .
    24
    .
    25
    .
    26
    .
    27
    .
    28
    .
    29
    .
    30
    .
    31
    .
    32
    .
    33
    .
    34
    .
    35
    .
    36
    .
    37
    .
    38
    .
    39
    .
    40
    .
    1
    .
    Běijīng 北京
    .
    2
    .
    Chángshā 长沙
    .
    3
    .
    Chéngdū 成都
    .
    4
    .
    Fùzhōu 福州
    .
    5
    .
    Guǎngzhōu 广州
    .
    6
    .
    Guìyáng 贵阳
    .
    7
    .
    Harbin 哈尔滨
    .
    8
    .
    Hǎikǒu 海口
    .
    9
    .
    Hángzhōu 杭州
    .
    10
    .
    Héfèi 合肥
    .
    11
    .
    Hohhot 呼和浩特
    .
    12
    .
    Jiàn'ōu 建瓯
    .
    13
    .
    Jìnán 济南
    .
    14
    .
    Kùnmíng 昆明
    .
    15
    .
    Lánzhōu 兰州
    .
    16
    .
    Měixiàn 梅县
    .
    17
    .
    Nánchàng 南昌
    .
    18
    .
    Nánjīng 南京
    .
    19
    .
    Nánníng 南宁
    .
    20
    .
    Píngyáo 平遥
    .
    21
    .
    Qīngdǎo 青岛
    .
    22
    .
    Shànghǎi 上海
    .
    23
    .
    Shāntóu 汕头
    .
    24
    .
    Shèxiàn 歙县
    .
    25
    .
    Sùzhōu 苏州
    .
    26
    .
    Táiběi 台北
    .
    27
    .
    Tàiyuán 太原
    .
    28
    .
    Táoyuán 桃园
    .
    29
    .
    Tiānjìn 天津
    .
    30
    .
    Tūnxī 屯溪
    .
    31
    .
    Wénzhōu 温州
    .
    32
    .
    Wǔhàn 武汉
    .
    33
    .
    Ürümqi 乌鲁木齐
    .
    34
    .
    Xiàmén 厦门
    .
    35
    .
    Hongkong 香港
    .
    36
    .
    Xiāngtàn 湘潭
    .
    37
    .
    Xīníng 西宁
    .
    38
    .
    Xī'ān 西安
    .
    39
    .
    Yīnchuàn 银川
    .
    40
    .
    Zhèngzhōu 郑州
    .
    1
    .
    7
    .
    15
    .
    Inferred Links
    37 / 45

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  108. Shifting the Paradigm Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution
    Minimal Lateral Networks (List et al. 2014)
    .
    .
    -----Jìnán
    .
    -----Harbin
    .
    -----Héfèi
    .
    Chángshā ----
    .
    Sùzhōu
    ----
    .
    -----Yīnchuàn
    .
    -----Běijīng
    .
    Hángzhōu
    ----
    .
    -----Chéngdū
    .
    -----Hohhot
    .
    -----Lánzhōu
    .
    Xiāngtàn ----
    .
    -----Ürüm
    qi
    .
    M
    ěixiàn
    ----
    .
    -----Xī'ān
    .
    G
    uǎngzhōu
    ----
    .
    -----Nánjīng
    .
    Táoyuán ----
    .
    -----Zhèngzhōu
    .
    -----Kùnmíng
    .
    Táiběi ----
    .
    Shànghǎi ----
    .
    Xiàmén ----
    .
    Jiàn'ǒu ----
    .
    Shèxiàn ----
    .
    -----Q
    īngdǎo
    .
    -----Xīníng
    .
    Fùzhōu ----
    .
    -----Tàiyuán
    .
    -----Píngyáo
    .
    Nánchàng ----
    .
    H
    ongkong
    ----
    .
    N
    ánníng
    ----
    .
    W
    énzhōu
    ----
    .
    -----Guìyáng
    .
    Shāntóu ----
    .
    -----Tiānjìn
    .
    Tūnxī ----
    .
    Hǎikǒu ----
    .
    -----Wǔhàn
    .
    太阳
    .
    日头
    .
    热头
    .
    阳婆
    .

    .
    Loss Event
    .
    Gain Event
    Item „sun”
    38 / 45

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  109. Shifting the Paradigm Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution
    Minimal Lateral Networks (List et al. 2014)
    Item „sun”
    .
    .
    Shànghǎi ----
    .
    Hongkong ----
    .
    Táiběi ----
    .
    Nánjīng ----
    .
    Táoyuán ----
    .
    Běijīng ----
    .
    Měixiàn ----
    .
    Xiàmén ----
    .
    Fùzhōu ----
    .
    Guǎngzhōu ----
    .
    太阳
    .
    日头
    .
    Loss Event
    .
    Gain Event
    38 / 45

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  110. Shifting the Paradigm Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution
    Minimal Lateral Networks (List et al. 2014)
    Item „sun”
    .
    .
    Shànghǎi ----
    .
    Hongkong ----
    .
    Táiběi ----
    .
    Nánjīng ----
    .
    Táoyuán ----
    .
    Běijīng ----
    .
    Měixiàn ----
    .
    Xiàmén ----
    .
    Fùzhōu ----
    .
    Guǎngzhōu ----
    .
    太阳
    .
    日头
    .
    Loss Event
    .
    Gain Event
    38 / 45

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  111. Shifting the Paradigm Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution
    Minimal Lateral Networks (List et al. 2014)
    Item „sun”
    .
    .
    Shànghǎi ----
    .
    Hongkong ----
    .
    Táiběi ----
    .
    Nánjīng ----
    .
    Táoyuán ----
    .
    Běijīng ----
    .
    Měixiàn ----
    .
    Xiàmén ----
    .
    Fùzhōu ----
    .
    Guǎngzhōu ----
    .
    太阳
    .
    日头
    .
    Loss Event
    .
    Gain Event
    38 / 45

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  112. Shifting the Paradigm Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution
    Language History and Prokaryotic Evolution
    Biological methods dealing with both vertical and horizontal
    processes of evolution may provide interesting and new in-
    sights into the dynamics underlying language history.
    39 / 45

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  113. Shifting the Paradigm Community Structure and Semantic Change
    Community Structure and Semantic Change
    Semantic change plays a crucial role in language change. Al-
    though most linguists assume that it proceeds according to
    certain general patterns, we currently lack the empirical basis
    to pursue the question in depth. Normally, semantic change
    proceeds by cumulation and reduction.
    40 / 45

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  114. Shifting the Paradigm Community Structure and Semantic Change
    Community Structure and Semantic Change
    German “head”
    Kopf .
    k ɔ p͡f
    Pre-German “head”
    *kop –
    k ɔ p “vessel”
    Proto-
    Germanic
    *kuppa-
    k u pː a “vessel”
    POLYSEMY
    PHASE
    FORM MEANING
    MONOSEMY
    PHASE
    MONOSEMY
    PHASE
    CUMULATION
    REDUCTION
    40 / 45

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  115. Shifting the Paradigm Community Structure and Semantic Change
    Community Structure and Semantic Change
    “cup”
    CONTEST
    TROPHY
    [kʌp] CUP
    English polysemy structure for cup
    40 / 45

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  116. Shifting the Paradigm Community Structure and Semantic Change
    Community Structure and Semantic Change
    “head, cup”
    CUP
    HEAD
    [kɔp] TOP
    Dutch polysemy structure for kop
    40 / 45

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  117. Shifting the Paradigm Community Structure and Semantic Change
    Community Structure and Semantic Change
    “head”
    HEAD
    TOP
    [kɔp͡f] CHIEF
    German polysemy structure for Kopf
    40 / 45

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  118. Shifting the Paradigm Community Structure and Semantic Change
    Community Structure and Semantic Change
    Key Concept Russian German ...
    1.1 world mir, svet Welt ...
    1.21 earth, land zemlja Erde, Land ...
    1.212 ground, soil počva Erde, Boden ...
    1.420 tree derevo Baum ...
    1.430 wood derevo Wald ...
    ... ... ... ... ...
    41 / 45

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  119. Shifting the Paradigm Community Structure and Semantic Change
    Community Structure and Semantic Change
    CLICS: Crosslinguistic Colexifications
    - 221 Languages
    - 64 language families
    - 1280 concepts
    - 301,498 words
    - 45,667 polysemies (colexifications)
    - 16,239 different links between concepts
    - http://clics.lingpy.org
    41 / 45

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  120. Shifting the Paradigm Community Structure and Semantic Change
    Community Structure and Semantic Change
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    837
    41 / 45

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  121. Shifting the Paradigm Community Structure and Semantic Change
    Community Structure and Semantic Change
    Concept "money" is part of a cluster with the central concept "fishscale" with a total of 10 nodes. Hover over
    forms for each link. Click on the forms to check their sources. Click HERE to export the current network.
    ity: Line weights: Coloring: Family
    silver
    leather
    fishscale
    bark
    coin
    fur
    snail
    skin, hide
    money
    shell
    49 links for "silver" and "money":
    Language Family Form
    1. Ignaciano Arawakan ne
    2. Aymara, Central Aymaran ḳulʸḳi
    3. Tsafiki Barbacoan kaˈla
    4. Seselwa Creole French Creole larzan
    5. Miao, White Hmong-Mien nyiaj
    6. Breton Indo-European arhant
    7. French Indo-European argent
    8. Gaelic, Irish Indo-European airgead
    9. Welsh Indo-European arian
    10. Cofán Isolate koriΦĩʔdi
    41 / 45

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  122. Shifting the Paradigm Community Structure and Semantic Change
    Community Structure and Semantic Change
    Concept "wheel" is part of a cluster with the central concept "leg" with a total of 11 nodes. Hover over the e
    each link. Click on the forms to check their sources. Click HERE to export the current network.
    ity: Line weights: Coloring: Geolocation
    sphere, ball
    round
    footprint
    foot
    calf of leg
    circle
    thigh
    wheel
    leg
    hip
    buttocks
    6 links for "foot" and "wheel":
    Language Family Form
    1. Cofán Isolate c̷ɨʔtʰe
    2. Puinave Isolate sim
    3. Yaminahua Panoan taɨ
    4. Wayampi Tupi pɨ
    5. Pumé Unclassified taɔ
    6. Ninam Yanomam mãhuk
    41 / 45

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  123. Shifting the Paradigm Community Structure and Semantic Change
    Community Structure and Semantic Change
    Polysemy networks bear a strong potential to investigate both
    cognitive and cultural forces underlying semantic change.
    Evolutionary biology, with its strong background in the ap-
    plication of network methods, may inspire the development
    of innovative approaches to study cross-linguistic polysemy
    data.
    42 / 45

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  124. Shifting the Paradigm Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation
    Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation
    43 / 45

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  125. Shifting the Paradigm Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation
    Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation
    German m oː n t -
    English m uː n - -
    Danish m ɔː n - ə
    Swedish m oː n - e
    43 / 45

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  126. Shifting the Paradigm Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation
    Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation
    German m oː n t -
    English m uː n - -
    Danish m ɔː n - ə
    Swedish m oː n - e
    Fúzhōu ŋ u o ʔ ⁵ - - - - - - - - - -
    Měixiàn ŋ i a t ⁵ - - - - - k u o ŋ ⁴⁴
    Guǎngzhōu j - y t ² l - œ ŋ ²² - - - - -
    Běijīng - y ɛ - ⁵¹ l i ɑ ŋ - - - - - -
    43 / 45

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  127. Shifting the Paradigm Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation
    Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation
    German m oː n t -
    English m uː n - -
    Danish m ɔː n - ə
    Swedish m oː n - e
    Fúzhōu ŋ u o ʔ ⁵ - - - - - - - - - -
    Měixiàn ŋ i a t ⁵ - - - - - k u o ŋ ⁴⁴
    Guǎngzhōu j - y t ² l - œ ŋ ²² - - - - -
    Běijīng - y ɛ - ⁵¹ l i ɑ ŋ - - - - - -
    "MOON"
    "MOON"
    "SHINE" "LIGHT"
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  128. Shifting the Paradigm Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation
    Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation
    Fúzhōu
    Měixiàn
    Guǎngzhōu
    Běijīng
    43 / 45

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  129. Shifting the Paradigm Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation
    Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation
    Fúzhōu
    Měixiàn
    Guǎngzhōu
    Běijīng
    INNO
    VATIO
    N
    INNO
    VATIO
    N
    INNO
    VATIO
    N
    BO
    RRO
    W
    ING
    LO
    SS
    INNO
    VATIO
    N
    INNO
    VATIO
    N
    43 / 45

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  130. Shifting the Paradigm Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation
    Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation
    Fúzhōu
    Měixiàn
    Guǎngzhōu
    Běijīng Fúzhōu
    Měixiàn
    Guǎngzhōu
    Běijīng
    43 / 45

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  131. Shifting the Paradigm Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation
    Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation
    Fúzhōu
    Měixiàn
    Guǎngzhōu
    Běijīng Fúzhōu
    Měixiàn
    Guǎngzhōu
    Běijīng
    43 / 45

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  132. Shifting the Paradigm Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation
    Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation
    Fúzhōu
    Měixiàn
    Guǎngzhōu
    Běijīng
    43 / 45

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  133. Shifting the Paradigm Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation
    Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation
    Fúzhōu
    Měixiàn
    Guǎngzhōu
    Běijīng
    43 / 45

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  134. Shifting the Paradigm Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation
    Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation
    LOSS
    INNO
    VATIO
    N
    INNO
    VATIO
    N
    BORROWING
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  135. Shifting the Paradigm Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation
    Lexical Change and Tree Reconciliation
    The complex patterns of lexical change create complex re-
    lations between the words in linguistic datasets. So far, no
    formal methods are known to detect and analyze these rela-
    tions. Methods for tree reconciliation in biology may provide
    great help in reconciling the individual history of words with
    the general history of languages.
    44 / 45

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  136. Thanks for Your Attention!
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