Learning, Cognition, & Assessment

slides from the summer 2016 course

Transcript

1. 5 April 2016 Learning/Cognition II: Information-Processing EPSY 3119/5001 — Jeremy Wang 1 “Careful the things you say, children will listen. Guide them along the way, children will see and learn. Children may not obey, but children will look to you for which way to turn; to learn what to be! Careful before you say ‘Listen to Me.’ Children will listen.” –Into the Woods, Sondheim & Lapine 2 Announcements ✤ Extra credit opportunities posted ✤ Item writing in PeerWise ✤ Blog post review ✤ Exam #2 — next Thursday, April 14 ✤ In-class review during lab 3
2. Announcements ✤ Remember: Your health is more important than any course, project, or HW assignment ✤ If you or someone you know are in crisis and require urgent consultation, call the confidential Urgent Mental Health Consultation Line at 612-625-8475 ✤ Call 911 after hours 4 Agenda ✤ Review Behaviorism + Social Cognitive Approach ✤ The Information-Processing Model ✤ Attention ✤ Memory: Encoding, Storage, Retrieval ✤ Expertise ✤ Learning Principles from the IP Model 5 Learning Goals ✤ Be able to describe how social cognitive theory is demonstrated through the Bobo Doll experiment. ✤ Identify and describe parts of the Information-Processing model and associated properties, including attention and memory. ✤ Describe learning principles derived from the IP model, how they are related to aspects of the IP model, and provide examples of how these principles can be applied.* 6
3. Review 7 Question 1 ✤ What was the “Little Albert” experiment? ✤ Who conducted it? ✤ Classical (The Office) or operant (Big Bang Theory)? 8 Question 2 ✤ What was the “Little Albert” experiment? ✤ Who conducted it? ✤ Classical (The Office) or operant (Big Bang Theory)? 9
4. Question 2 ✤ “Time out” is often used by parents and teachers to change children’s behavior. ✤ What kind of operant conditioning is “time out”? ✤ Increasing or decreasing behavior? ✤ Giving or taking away something? 10 Operant Conditioning 11 Operant Conditioning ❖ Made famous by B.F. Skinner and work with pigeons/ rats ❖ Conditioning through reinforcement (rewards) and punishment 12
5. Operant Conditioning ❖ Positive reinforcement ❖ Increase behavior by adding rewards ❖ Negative reinforcement ❖ Increase behavior by subtracting aversive stimulus 13 Operant Conditioning ❖ Punishment ❖ Decreases behavior by adding aversive stimulus ❖ Extinction ❖ Decreases behavior by subtracting rewards 14 Operant Conditioning Increases Behavior Decreases Behavior Adds Stimulus Positive Reinforcement (e.g. “reward”) Punishment (e.g. “detention”) Removes Stimulus Negative Reinforcement (e.g. “whining” or “yelling”) Extinction (e.g. “refusing attention to bad behavior”) 15
6. “Teaching Machine” 16 Learning to Code 17 Examples of Behaviorist Learning Try to explain the following examples in terms of classical or operant conditioning 18
7. Example 1 Mr. Howard knows that testing makes his student Ariel very nervous and anxious. He helps her overcome this fear by writing silly questions and drawing pleasant pictures on practices tests. He has Ariel sit down and take these for several weeks during lunch and after school prior to statewide exams. Ariel’s anxiety about tests is greatly reduced by the time the big tests roll around. 19 Example 2 Lucy loves cookies (especially Joe-Joes) because her grandma gives them to her them whenever she wants. Every time she sees a box of Joe-Joes, she asks for a cookie. If she doesn’t get one right away, she throws a tantrum, kicking and screaming. Eventually, her grandma caves in and gives her a Joe-Joe. 20 Applied Behavioral Analysis: Purpose ❖ Can be used to… ❖ Increase desirable behaviors ❖ Decrease undesirable behaviors 21
8. ABA: Increasing Desirable Behaviors 1. Choose effective reinforcers 2. Make reinforcers contingent and timely 3. Select the best schedule of reinforcement 4. Consider contracting 5. Use negative reinforcement effectively 6. Use prompts and shaping 22 ABA: Choose effective reinforcers ❖ Premack principle ❖ A high-probability, desirable activity can serve as a reinforcer for a low-probability, target activity ❖ e.g. If the class reads 100 books, we will have a pizza party! ❖ Not all reinforcers work for every child* ❖ e.g. Praise 23 Praise ❖ Different types of praise: ❖ Person praise (“you are SO smart!”) ❖ Process praise (“you worked really hard!”) ❖ Different types of students ❖ High self-esteem ❖ Low self-esteem 24
9. Praise 25 Brummelman, Thomaes, Overbeek, Orobio de Castro, van den Hout, & Bushman (2014) Praise 26 Brummelman, Thomaes, Overbeek, Orobio de Castro, van den Hout, & Bushman (2014) Inflated Praise ❖ “Amazing! You made an incredibly beautiful drawing.” ❖ Adults give more inflated praise to children with low self-esteem, which can backfire ❖ Inflated praise conveys to child the need to continue to perform at a high level ❖ Can decrease challenge-seeking behavior in the future 27 Brummelman, Thomaes, Orobio de Castro, Overbeek, & Bushman (2014)
10. ABA: Make reinforcers contingent and timely ❖ Contingent: ❖ “If ______, then ______” ❖ If you are not consistent, the contingency will not be learned. ❖ Timely: ❖ Reinforcement has to happen immediately following the behavior (or somehow “close” to the behavior) 28 ABA: Contracting ❖ Put contingencies in writing ❖ input from teacher and student ❖ “If _______, then ________” ❖ encourages consistency ❖ serves as a reminder ❖ witnesses (other students, parents) 29 THINK-PAIR-SHARE A teacher is trying to get his students to participate in class more often. He decides to offer praise as a reward to encourage participation. ❖ What are some possible ways rewards could be given out? 30
11. ABA: Schedules of reinforcement ❖ Fixed vs. Variable (consistency) ❖ same (fixed) or unpredictable (variable) schedule ❖ Ratio vs. Interval (frequency) ❖ after a certain number of responses (ratio) ❖ after a certain amount of time (interval — e.g. sec, min, hr) 31 ABA: Schedules of reinforcement 32 ABA: Prompts and Shaping ❖ Use prompts to cue behaviors ❖ “Before we eat snack, we need to…” ❖ Use shaping to teach complex behaviors ❖ Reinforce approximations 33
12. ABA: “Time Out” ❖ Can be difficult to implement effectively ❖ What if student refuses to comply? ❖ Brings attention to student ❖ Denies learning experiences and opportunities ❖ Could be positive punishment, negative punishment, positive reinforcement, or negative reinforcement! ❖ Try to figure out how! 34 ABA: Decreasing undesirable behaviors 1. Use differential reinforcement (reinforce desired behaviors, ignore others) 2. Terminate reinforcement (extinction) 3. Remove desirable stimuli (time-out) 4. Present aversive stimuli (punishment) 35 Problems with punishment ❖ Can instill fear, rage or avoidance ❖ Reduces concentration ❖ Doesn’t tell student what they should do ❖ Punishments can actually be reinforcement (attention) ❖ Can be abusive 36
13. Take-home messages ❖ Positive and negative reinforcement should be used instead of punishment whenever possible. Punishment should be a last resort ❖ Reinforcement and punishment — one size does NOT fit all ❖ Establish explicit contingencies and be consistent (or variable) ❖ Don’t take away playtime!!! 37 This American Life: Bad Baby ❖ http://www.thisamericanlife.org/radio-archives/ episode/521/bad-baby 38 Social Cognitive Approaches 39
14. Social Cognitive ❖ Albert Bandura’s reciprocal determinism model BEHAVIOR PERSON/ COGNITIVE ENVIRONMENT 40 Social Cognitive: History ❖ Chomsky’s critique: Behaviorism cannot explain all human behavior (such as language) ❖ Observational learning requires mental structures, such as attention, retention, production, and motivation ❖ Opens the “black box” of cognition 41 Observational Learning 42
15. Modeling ❖ Teachers are important models for student ❖ WRONG: “Do what I say, not what I do” ❖ RIGHT: “I do, we do, you do” ❖ So are peers! 43 Modeling 44 Cognitive Behavior Approaches ❖ Self-instructional methods ❖ Self-talk, self-encouragement ❖ Use prompts (posters, reminders, etc.) ❖ Self-regulatory learning ❖ Goal-setting, monitoring, revise strategies, evaluate obstacles ❖ Ability grows with development 45
16. Information-Processing 46 Index Card ✤ Put your name in the upper right corner! 47 Memory ✤ How good is your memory for what a penny looks like? ✤ 1 = “I have a photographic memory” ✤ 5 = “Who uses pennies?” 48
17. 49 50 Memory: Recall ✤ What about the “tails” side? ✤ Hint: There are 4 elements 51
18. Recall 52 Retrieval Practice ✤ Front half: Practice drawing the heads side ✤ Back half: Practice drawing the tails side 53 Learning Principle: Recognition over recall Memory for recognizing things is better than memory for recalling things. or “It’s easier to recognize than recall.” Critical for making assessment decisions!!! 54
19. Cognitive Approaches ✤ Social Cognitive (Bandura, Modeling, Bobo Doll) ✤ Information Processing ✤ Cognitive Constructivist (Problem-Solving) ✤ Social Constructivist (Cooperative) 55 Cognitive Approaches ✤ Social Cognitive (Bandura, Modeling, Bobo Doll) ✤ Information-Processing ✤ Cognitive Constructivist (Problem-Solving) ✤ Social Constructivist (Cooperative) 56 Information-Processing Model Input Output 57
20. Information-Processing Approach ✤ Computer as a metaphor for how the mind works ✤ Examination of cognitive resources ✤ Capacity ✤ Processing speed 58 Information-Processing Model ✤ ` 59 Components of I-P Model ✤ Sensory Memory (information from the environment for a short amount of time) ✤ Attention (“spotlight” for information received) ✤ Perception (filtering of information received) ✤ Working Memory (active information) ✤ Long-Term Memory (dormant information) ✤ Metacognition (information about information) 60
21. Information-Processing Model ✤ ` 61 Components of I-P Model ✤ Sensory Memory (information from the environment for a short amount of time) ✤ Attention (“spotlight” for information received) ✤ Perception (filtering of information received) ✤ Working Memory (active information) ✤ Long-Term Memory (dormant information) ✤ Metacognition (information about information) 62 Information-Processing Model ✤ ` 63
22. Components of I-P Model ✤ Sensory Memory (information from the environment for a short amount of time) ✤ Attention (“spotlight” for information received) ✤ Perception (filtering of information received) ✤ Working Memory (active information) ✤ Long-Term Memory (dormant information) ✤ Metacognition (information about information) 64 Information-Processing Model ✤ ` 65 Components of I-P Model ✤ Sensory Memory (information from the environment for a short amount of time) ✤ Attention (“spotlight” for information received) ✤ Perception (filtering of information received) ✤ Working Memory (active information) ✤ Long-Term Memory (dormant information) ✤ Metacognition (information about information) 66
23. Information-Processing Model ✤ ` 67 Learning Principles from I-P 1. Prior knowledge can help or hinder learning ✤ inattentional blindness, automaticity 2. How students organize knowledge influences how they learn and apply what they know ✤ Recognition over recall, Depth of processing/Elaboration, Five Hat Racks, Chunking/Cognitive Load, Serial position effect, Testing effects 68 Information-Processing Model 69
24. Attention 70 “Everyone knows what attention is. It is the taking possession by the mind, in clear and vivid form, of one out of what seem several simultaneously possible objects or trains of thought. Focalization, concentration, of consciousness are of its essence. It implies withdrawal from some things in order to deal effectively with others, and is a condition which has a real opposite in the confused, dazed, scatterbrained state…” –William James, Principles of Psychology 71 Attention https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IGQmdoK_ZfY 72
25. Learning Principle: Inattentional Blindness ✤ What does this tell us? ✤ Attention is selective — your (conscious?) mind only processes the information relevant to your current task ✤ “Seductive details” can detract from learning 73 Attention & Classroom Decoration 74 Attention & Classroom Decoration 75
26. Attention & Classroom Decoration Fisher, Godwin, & Seltman, 2014 76 Classroom Decoration ✤ Too much decoration can reduce learning, especially when they are… ✤ Irrelevant to instruction ✤ Novel to students ✤ However, decorations may help… ✤ build self-esteem by displaying work ✤ act as cues and reminders of important information 77 Types of Attention ✤ Selective attention (focus) ✤ Divided attention (multitasking) ✤ Sustained attention (problems lead to ADHD) ✤ Executive attention (planning & switching) 78
27. Principles from I-P Model ✤ Prior knowledge can help or hinder learning ✤ Inattention blindness ✤ Automaticity 79 Learning Principle: Automaticity ✤ Well-learned material is processed automatically ✤ This automatic processing can interfere with other tasks 80 Automaticity Experiment ✤ Split into two groups ✤ Group A in the front ✤ Group B in the back 81
28. Group A: ✤ When the slide comes up, quietly or silently read the WORDS to yourself as fast as possible. ✤ When you are done, raise your hand immediately. 82 Group B: ✤ When the slide comes up, quietly or silently identify the COLORS of the words to yourself as fast as possible. ✤ When you are done, raise your hand immediately. 83 Ready? 84
29. RED GREEN YELLOW BLUE PURPLE GREEN RED PURPLE YELLOW BLUE RED YELLOW RED BLUE GREEN PURPLE GREEN BLUE RED 85 Who was faster? 86 Learning Principle: Automaticity ✤ Well-learned material is processed automatically ✤ This automatic processing can interfere with other tasks ✤ Encourage automaticity for important information (e.g. reading, classroom procedures) ✤ Concepts or words that have automatic associations different from their academic use may be more difficult to learn quickly (e.g. “mean” in math or “force” in physics) ✤ Avoid using examples that might trigger automatic processing that distracts from important information 87
30. Learning Principles ✤ Prior knowledge can help or hinder learning ✤ Inattentional blindness ✤ Automaticity 88 Memory 89 Information-Processing Model ✤ ` 90
31. Memory Three processes: ✤ Encoding ✤ Storage ✤ Retrieval and Forgetting 91 Memory Three processes: ✤ Encoding ✤ Storage ✤ Retrieval and Forgetting 92 Memory: Encoding Methods: ✤ Rehearsal (e.g. drill & kill) ✤ Deep processing (e.g. surface features vs. deep meaning) ✤ Elaboration (e.g. relevant examples and connections) ✤ Constructing images (e.g. Jeanette) ✤ Organization (e.g. chunking, Five Hat Racks) ✤ Testing (e.g. self-testing, multiple low-stakes quizzes) 93
32. Learning Principle: Elaboration ✤ Improves encoding by making meaningful connections to prior knowledge (LTM) ✤ Ex. At the end of class, write down the things that were important to you or provide an example. 94 Learning Principle: Five Hat Racks ✤ Information can often be organized in 1 of 5 ways: ✤ alphabetical, chronologically, location, category, continuum ✤ one is usually preferable to others ✤ e.g. listing months of the year alphabetically 95 Learning Principle: Testing Effects ✤ Testing with self-questions significantly improves learning (Roediger & Butler, 2011; Dunlosky et al., 2013) ✤ Should testing practice be… ✤ repetitive or varied? ✤ massed or spaced? ✤ Practice should be VARIED and SPACED 96
33. Memory Three processes: ✤ Encoding ✤ Storage ✤ Retrieval and Forgetting 97 Memory: Storage ✤ Sensory Memory—holds environmental information for only an instant (<4 seconds) ✤ Short-Term Memory—limited capacity in space and time ✤ Working memory: phonological loop, visuospatial, central executive ✤ Long-Term Memory—large amount of information for a long time 98 Memory: Storage ✤ Types of memory ✤ Declarative (“knowing that”) ✤ Episodic (events) ✤ Semantic (meaning) ✤ Nondeclarative (“knowing how”) 99
34. Memory: Storage ✤ Theories: ✤ Network (nodes and links) ✤ Schemas & Scripts (“coathangers” or “skeletons” for information) ✤ Fuzzy trace (verbatim and gist) 100 Learning Principle: “Magic Number” ✤ George Miller (1956) ✤ STM/Working Memory can hold 7 +/- 2 items for about 20 seconds 101 Memory: Storage ✤ Remember this string of 12 letters 102
35. P B S D F L U M N G O P 103 P B S D F L U M N G O P 104 Learning Principle: Chunking ✤ Grouping information into meaningful groups can enhance memory capacity ✤ e.g. Ericsson: SF’s memory span from 7 to 79 ✤ e.g. Provide students with meaningful groupings of concepts 105
36. Memory ✤ Encoding ✤ Storage ✤ Retrieval and Forgetting 106 Memory: Retrieval Experiment ✤ Listen to the word list 107 108
37. Count down from 100 by 7s 109 Memory: Retrieval ✤ Recall as many words from the list as you can 110 Learning Principle: Serial Position Effect ✤ When information is learned in sequence, people tend to remember items at the beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect) of the list or event. ✤ LTM is structured to capture beginnings and ends of events 111
38. Memory: Retrieval 1. Eye 2. Pin 3. Point 4. Syringe 5. Pain 6. Haystack 7. Thread 8. Needle 9. Prick 10.Sharp 11.Sewing 12.Injection 13.Knitting 14.Poke Rate the following words from 1—“Not on the list” to 4—“Definitely on the list” 112 Memory: Retrieval 1. Eye 2. Pin 3. Point 4. Syringe 5. Pain 6. Haystack 7. Thread 8. Needle 9. Prick 10.Sharp 11.Sewing 12.Injection 13.Knitting 14.Poke Rate the following words from 1—“Not on the list” to 4—“Definitely on the list” 113 Recall ✤ What does the heads side of a penny look like? 114
39. Recognition 115 Recall 116 Recall ✤ What does the tails side of a penny look like? 117
40. Recall 118 Learning Principle: Recognition over recall Memory for recognizing things is better than memory for recalling things. or “It’s easier to recognize than recall.” 119 Expertise 120
41. Experts vs. Novices 121 Experts ✤ Detect features and meaningful patterns ✤ Have more knowledge that is well-organized ✤ Can retrieve information with little effort ✤ Can adapt to new situations ✤ Not necessarily “gifted” in memory capacity or ability 122 Teaching Expertise ✤ Pedagogical Content Knowledge ✤ ideas about common difficulties that students have as they try to learn a content area ✤ typical paths students take to understanding ✤ strategies for overcoming difficulties students face ✤ “Expert Blind Spot” 123
42. Summary 124 Principles important for learning ✤ Prior knowledge can help or hinder learning (attention/perception) ✤ Inattentional blindness, Automaticity ✤ How students organize knowledge influences how they learn and apply what they know (encoding) ✤ Encoding ✤ Depth of processing / Elaboration, Five Hat Racks, Testing effects ✤ Storage ✤ “Magic Number”, Chunking ✤ Retrieval ✤ Recognition over recall, Serial position effect 125 “But you don’t have to take my word for it…” 126
43. END 127