Subject matter of schooling ! A kind of registry for what is taught An exposure to content knowledge in English, mathematics, science, history, the foreign language & so forth. Curriculum in relation to the term instruction, implies some separation between what is taught (curriculum) and how it is taught (instruction). However, any determination about how to teach has to be made in relation to what gets taught. Eisner (1994) ! Series of planned events intended to have educational consequences for one or two students Taba (1962) ! All curricula composed of certain elements ! Aims and objectives ! Some selection and organization of content ! A program of evaluation of the outcomes Tyler (1949) ! Formation of purposes (aim & objectives) ! Organization of experiences based on the purposes ! Evaluation of effects attributable to the experiences
reconstruction of knowledge and experience that enables the learner to grow in exercising intelligent control of subsequent knowledge and experience ! School experience that will produce a certain account of knowledgeable learners Dewey (1916) ! Education is connected to knowledge of life events and to educate individuals for intelligent participation in society Doll (1996) ! The formal and informal content and process by which learners gain knowledge and understanding, develop skills and alter attitudes, appreciations and values under the auspices of the school Functions of Curriculum Design The Latin derivative of the term curriculum is currere, which is associated with the idea of running a racecourse. In education, a course of studies represents a set of conditions that identifies what students should learn and in what sequence, as well as ideas on how students will be evaluated for the purpose of certifying their competence, or lack of it. Working definition of curriculum: “The deliberate and conscious design of the totality of he school experience in the interests of producing an educational effect.” Setting Boundaries ! Set boundaries or limitations on the school experience ! To identify the nature of an educational experience ! To see the curriculum in the life of the entire school
work emerges from what we call the normative agenda of schools. This puts the act of curriculum development alongside the act of social planning and social control. Boundary setting is all about social control. John Dewey (1916) believed that “the first office of the school is to provide a simplified environment”. The first principle to the organization of the school curriculum was: ! To focus and channel the school experience ! To ensure that the skills, values and knowledge we cherish are not lost. However, we must also understand how to convert setting purposes and boundaries into educational experiences. Educational Experience The character of an educational experience must be decided and pass through at least a three-part test: ! The experiences must by design be responsive to the nature of the learner ! Be of value of the society ! Have some framework of useful and empowering knowledge In other words, an educational experience must be calculated in relation to the developmental, experiential and psychological dimensions of the learner, to the axiological foundations of democracy, and to the teaching of usable and empowering knowledge. The triad consists of: ! The learner ! The society ! The subject matter
society. The purpose is to make a rational or defensible demonstration of responsiveness to the key factors in the educative process. Totality of the School The work of the curriculum relates to virtually everything that affects the school. Extracurricular implies that some things in the school operate outside of the curriculum . Curriculum work is not: ! Limited to the classroom ! The development of instructional units ! The formation of general school policy ! Suffuses the totality of the school experience Levels of Curriculum Design Macrocurriculum ! Embraces the design of the all-school experience and concerns itself with building- level design, factors, including the organization of courses across and within grade levels, school-wide mission features, and school-wide (extra-classroom) experiences. Microcurriculum ! Classroom-based judgments, including the planning and execution of classroom instructional, pedagogical and assessment decisions. Curriculum Design and Discretionary Space Achieving some balance between framing the curriculum experience and allowing for the exercise of teacher authority in the school. How do you create a curriculum design that does not deny the emergent professional judgments of teachers?
method of curriculum development yielded ‘teacher-proof’ curriculum materials. Teacher was the functionary in the school, carrying out the specifications of the curriculum according to the orders laid down by curriculum planners. Curriculum is refashioned for teacher (s): ! Objectives ! Lesson designs ! Practice activities ! Student test ! Language scripted for teacher The curriculum could bind the teacher into obediently yielding to external prescriptions like those offered in teachers’ guides and other prepackaged curriculum materials. However, in reality it takes creativity and intelligence to plan and implement educative engagements in the classrooms. The teacher must have some room to conceptualize the classroom and its curriculum according to some professional rationale. Eisner (1998): ‘one function of well-designed curriculum materials is to free the teacher to teach, with ingenuity, flexibility and confidence’ Dewey (1904): ‘teachers should be given to understand that they are not only permitted to act on their own initiative, but that they are expected to do so, and that their ability to take on situation for themselves would be more important in judging them than their following any particular set method or scheme’ A teacher should have some sense of what should be taught, and why it should be taught, leaving the question of how it should be taught up to the teachers as they calculate it in relation to the student population at hand and to certain professional elements.
equity issues in the education of students. The schools mandate that children: ! Learn to read ! Solve mathematical equations ! Strengthen their critical thinking ! Learn how to write If this is so, then the school curriculum has an obligation to ensure that all children gain an equal opportunity to learn all these skills. No matter how much freedom a teacher has in how to teach, they are obligated to accept some direction from the curriculum. Teachers can and should supplement or modify the curriculum in ways that are within professional lines and that have a professional justification. Testing Issues The pressure to teach to the test is a pressure on the discretionary space of the teacher. In other words, the core purposes of the curriculum are supposed to produce a flow of wide-ranging experiences in the school are often lost and forgotten by teachers who are preoccupied with testing priorities. Teachers get the signal that whatever is not tested is also not instructionally worthy. Too much emphasis on testing? There is a difference between teaching and testing. Curriculum developers, work with the idea of testing what is taught, not the reverse. Using the test to evaluate the experience is the correct direction of teaching. Curriculum Standards The purpose of curriculum standards are too: ! Ensure that all students receive the opportunity to learn a core of subject matter or knowledge ! A set of skills and knowledge appropriate for the education of all American youth ! Ensure equity for all students
be tied to tests ! Unify school curriculum ! Give teacher4s an unambiguous sense of what is important to teach ! Standards should not be constructed in a manner that implies or requires some standardization or uniformity of instructional practice ! Standards must avoid reducing themselves to test items on high stakes exams that will, far from liberating teacher intelligence, only result in producing a teaching-to-the-test mentality Instructional Issues ! Instructional procedures held to be universally applicable and appealing ! Effectiveness tied to instructional behaviors ! The how of teaching ! The management of established techniques or methodologies ! Teacher’s sense of worth tied to an ability to engage certain instructional manipulations Like, ! Gaining the class’s attention ! Informing the class of the lesson’s objective ! Eliciting the ‘so-called’ desired behavior’ of the lesson ! Questions pertaining to the appropriateness of the objective are of secondary importance ! ‘time on task’, to keep learners engaged in classroom activities Time on task is an idea that is rooted in exclusive instructional and managerial concerns. Research shows that so-called effective teachers have high expectations for performance, that they convey enthusiasm in their teaching and that they are vigilant about monitoring student work. What about teachers of disadvantaged students: ! Ask low-level questions ! Tend not to amplify, discuss or use pupil answers ! Do not encourage pupil-initiated questions ! Give little feedback on pupil questions
! Objective and Purpose ! Input ! Modeling ! Checking for Understanding ! Guided Practice ! Independent Practice The reality is that the curriculum development process demands instructional variance, a conclusion largely at odds with those who accuse it of shutting down teacher judgment. Ideas on Curriculum Design 1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain? 2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes? 3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized? 4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained? The management of purposes in the curriculum is not as simple as it might seem. There must be a way to balance everything the schools need and want to do. Determining what knowledge or content to include is not the only concern. Schools need to develop a logical sequence and progression of experiences for all the students to succeed.
sense of mission or purpose. At the macro level, decisions on the nature of coursework within and across the grades levels need to be decided. Teachers need to make decisions to the kinds of experiences the students are exposed to in the classroom. The job of the curriculum developer is to provide a working framework that makes it easy for a teacher to make instructional decisions in the context of purposes. Teachers’ style of language, the gestures they use to convey various points, the behaviors they display in various contexts, and the attitudes promoted by what they say and do all are part of the phenomenon called pedagogy. Pedagogy allows the curriculum to go in a direction that the teacher determines is best for the class. Such decisions of the teacher result of judgments that have no precise or explicit sanction in the curriculum but nevertheless emerge from experience, moved by decisions that the teacher makes in the best interests of the child. Eisner (1998) ‘purposes need not precede activities; they can be formulated in the process of the action itself’. We rely on good pedagogy for these types of judgments. Evaluation Evaluation is essential to the act of curriculum development. Educators evaluate in order to understand outside whether they have reached the purpose they explicitly sought. The term evaluate, is different than to test. All tests represent some form of evaluation, meaning they make some contribution to our knowledge of whether certain purposes have been attained. Evaluation should be approached as an evidence of collection process, requiring innovative thinking about ways to demonstrate whether core purposes in the curriculum have been fulfilled. Different tools may be used and that is determined on what needs to be evaluated. The evaluative component of curriculum development can help us determine where changes might be in order for the curriculum.
! Helps to organize the means used to bring these purposes to life in the educational encounter between teacher and students Curriculum designers: ! Concern themselves with finding ways to evaluate the worth of these experiences against stated purposes ! Determinations in the macrocurriculum reside mostly in the hands of a curriculum leader who looks at all the components ! Pulls together a coherent program that includes decisions related to the organization of coursework across and within grades ! Looks at the organization of various school-wide services and extra-classroom activities The teacher is the main curriculum worker at the microcurriculum: ! Teacher is empowered to make decisions on the curriculum ! Must be careful not to be too heavy-handed in the microcurriculum ! Must be free to pursue instructional actions that are not only consonant with the curriculum, but also responsive to the particularities of the educational situation ! Be careful that the curriculum design does not unduly strict the teacher ! Be careful not to teach to the test ! Use only one type of instructional model in the classroom ! Be aware of the teacher’s discretionary space
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