self.inspect id: @joker1007 name: Tomohiro Hashidate Repro inc. CTO I familiar with ... Ruby/Rails Ruby Black Magic (TracePoint) Speaker of RubyKaigi2018, RubyConf2018
TracePoint#enable can receive a Proc pr = proc do puts :foo puts :bar end trace = TracePoint.new(:line) do |tp| p tp.lineno end trace.enable(target: pr) pr.call 2 foo 3 bar
"Proc" is closure. def counter x = 0 proc { x += 1 } end c = counter counter.call # => 1 counter.call # => 2 Proc keeps the environment of the scope where it is created.
In fact, Ruby ... has function object as First-class object can receive functions as return value can pass functions as method arguments In other words, Ruby has a factor of functional programming.
Monad In functional programming, a monad is a design pattern[1] that allows structuring programs generically while automating away boilerplate code needed by the program logic. Monads achieve this by providing their own data type, which represents a specific form of computation, along with one procedure to wrap values of any basic type within the monad (yielding a monadic value) and another to compose functions that output monadic values (called monadic functions). from Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monad_(functional_programming).
Agenda Functor in Ruby Applicative Functor in Ruby Monad in Ruby Syntax sugar for monad Implement monadic syntax in Ruby Examples, DEMO Today, I will not explain mathematics. I will talk about only the programming technique. ここまでで5 〜6 分ぐらいだと良いなあ
Functor Functor ... is a container has a context for specific purpose. is a object that can be mapped by any function. The most popular functor in Ruby is "Array". [1,2,3].map { |i| i.to_s } In Haskell, map for Functor is called fmap .
Why is Functor useful Without functor and map, a container needs to implement all methods for any object that it may contain. Functor makes a container enable to collaborate with any methods.
Functor requires some laws functor.fmap(&:itself) == functor functor.fmap(&(proc_a >> proc_b)) == functor.fmap(&proc_a).fmap(&proc_b) These laws ensure that the behaviors of a functor are proper.
Applicative Functor (1) If you want to process with more than two functor objects, But fmap cannot handle more than two functors. [1,2,3].map do |i| [5,6,7].map do |j| i + j end end This sample outputs nested array. Of course, we can use flatten and flat_map . But we have a more functional approach.
What is difference between Applicative and Monad Applicative Functor cannot express multiple dependent effects. For example, a calculation that may fail depends on whether previous calculations succeeded or failed. In such cases, Monad is useful.
Monad Monad is a container like Functor and Applicative. In Haskell, Monad requires some implementations. class Monad m where (>>=) :: m a -> (a -> m b) -> m b (>>) :: m a -> m b -> m b return :: a -> m a fail :: String -> m a Especially, (>>=) is most important. it is called "bind operator".
What is >>= (bind operator) ? In the case of Array, Array#bind receives a function that receives an item contained by the array and outputs new array. Example. ["foo","bar"].bind { |s| s.split(//) } # => ["f","o","o","b","a","r"] In fact, it's flat_map
Monad in Scala Scala has a syntax sugar for monad. for { x <- Some(10) y <- functionMaybeFailed() } yield x + y // Return Some(10 + y) or None Scala transforms this code to flat_map style internally. Like below. Some(10).flatMap { x => functionMaybeFailed().flatMap { y => x + y } }
Syntax sugar for monad Some functional languages have syntax sugar for monad. Haskell has do-syntax, Scala has for-syntax. Because the main purpose of monad is a chain of contextual computation, and syntax sugar is very effective to use it more easily.
Nested flatMap is not readable Some(10).flatMap { x => functionA(x).flatMap { y => fuctionB.flatMap { z => z.process } } } The frequent appearance of flatMap is very noisy. { , } is the same. indent++.
Monad syntax in Ruby https://github.com/joker1007/monar calc = ->(*val) do val.monadic_eval do |x| a = x.odd? ? x : x / 2 y <<= [a + 14] z <<= [y, y + 1, y + 2] end end expect(calc.call(7, 8)).to \ eq([21, 22, 23, 18, 19, 20]) This code is valid syntax!! There is no warning.
<<= is assignment with operator a <<= foo equals a = a << foo This is valid ruby code. And Ruby treats a as assigned local variable! Moreover, most ruby programmers have not written such codes. In other words, I can change the behavior freely!!
Review the code transformation [1,2,3].monadic_eval do |i| j <<= [i, i*2] j.select(&:odd?) end transforms to [1,2,3].flat_map do |i| [i, i*2].flat_map do |j| j.select(&:odd?) end end
It is difficult to resolve nested do-end by method chain. OK, AST Transformation!! We already have RubyVM::AST.of . It is a new feature of Ruby-2.6 and very useful for handling AST.
Breakdown of my implementation Extract AST from given block by RubyVM::AST.of Detect a pattern like a <<= foo Extract fragments of source code Reconstruct source code Wrap into new proc (to cache reconstructed code) instance_eval new source code ここまでで20 分弱だと良いなあ
Wrap into a new proc gen = "proc { |#{caller_local_variables.map(&:to_s).join(",")}| begin; " + buf[0] + "rescue => ex; rescue_in_monad(ex); end; }\n" pr = instance_eval(gen, caller_location.path, caller_location.lineno) Monad.proc_cache["#{block_location[0]}:#{block_location[1]}"] = pr instance_eval outputs a proc object which contains transformed process. And I cached it to avoid source code transformation repeatedly.
Handling local variables Reconstructing codes lose local variables, because the environment contained by block is lost. Binding is required to handle local variables.
proc_binding = nil trace = TracePoint.new(:line) do |tp| # this block is called Just before evaluating proc's first line proc_binding = tp.binding throw :escape end catch(:escape) do # In Ruby-2.6, TracePoint can limit tracking target. trace.enable(target: block) block.call ensure trace.disable end
At last, instance_exec generates proc with local variables of the caller. instance_exec( *(caller_local_variables.map { |lvar| proc_binding.local_variable_get(lvar) }), &generated_pr )
Maybe (Just) class Just include Monad include Monar::Maybe def initialize(value) @value = value; end def flat_map(&pr) pr.call(@value); end def monad_class Monar::Maybe; end end
Maybe (Nothing) class Nothing include Monad include Monar::Maybe def initialize(*value); end def flat_map(&pr) self; end def monad_class Monar::Maybe; end end
Maybe example key1 = "users/#{user.id}/posts/#{post.id}" key2 = "posts/#{post.id}/comments" # lookup_cache returns Maybe lookup_cache(key1).monadic_eval do |cached_post| cached_comments <<= lookup_cache(key2) # If lookup_cache(key2) fails, # below processes are not executed post = Oj.load(cached_post) comments = Oj.load(cached_comments) post.comments = comments pure post end # return Just(post) or Nothing
Either example either { Balance.find_by!(user: user_a) }.monadic_eval do |balance_a| _ <<= balance_a.ensure_amount!(amount) # return Either balance_b <<= either { Balance.find_by!(user: user_b) } TransferMoneyService.new(from: user_a, to: user_b, amount: amount) .process # return Either end # return Right(result) or Left(exception) Either hides error handling behind monad syntax. And it has a high affinity with pattern matching. Pattern matching is very hot topic.
Future (extend concurrent-ruby) Concurrent::Promises::Future.include(Monad) class Concurrent::Promises::Future def flat_map(&pr) yield value! rescue => ex if rejected? self else Concurrent::Promises.rejected_future(ex) end end end
Future example Concurrent::Promises.make_future(5).monadic_eval do |x| a = x.odd? ? x : x / 2 b = Concurrent::Promises.future { sleep 2; 11 } c = Concurrent::Promises.future { sleep 1; 3 } d <<= b # wait b e <<= c # wait c pure(a + d + e) end # Return Future(19) like async syntax of JavaScript.
State (constructor) State has a proc that receives current state and outputs value and next state. class State include Monad # @param next_state [Proc (s -> [a, s])] def initialize(next_state) raise ArgumentError.new("need to respond to :call") unless next_state.respond_to?(:call) @next_state = next_state end end
State (flat_map) def flat_map(&pr0) self.class.new( proc do |s0| x, s1 = run_state(s0) new_state_monad = pr0.call(x) new_state_monad.next_state.call(s1) end ) end run_state(s0) -> [a, s2] -> block.call(a) -> new state monad -> run_state(s1) These processes are wrapped by the new State class.
State example state = State.pure(5).monadic_eval do |n| status <<= get # Return initial state _ <<= if status != :saved result = n * 10 put(:saved) # Update state else pure(nil) end pure(result) end val, st = state.run_state(:not_saved) # val == 50, st == :saved val, st = state.run_state(:saved) # val == nil, st == :saved
ParserCombinator Parser also contains a proc. that proc receives String and returns [[Object, String]] . Object is a result of parsing. String is remained characters. flat_map expresses parser combination. | expresses selective parser.
Parser#flat_map def flat_map(&pr) self.class.new( proc do |str0| result0 = run_parser(str0) # return Array result0.flat_map do |output, remained| next_parser = pr.call(output) next_parser.run_parser(remained) end end ) end Below processes is wrapped by Proc . Get result -> given proc processes result -> Get New Parser -> parse remained chars.
Parser examples 2 def string(str) return pure "" if str == "" c, tail = str[0], str[1..-1] char(c).monadic_eval do |c1| cs <<= self.class.string(tail) pure [c1, *cs].join end end
Conclusion Monad is not difficult, It's flat_map The abstraction of monad is very powerful Syntax is very important I want other representations for nested block By this implementation, I recognized the fun of monadic programming again.
At last, I never recommend using this gem on production now!! If you are interested in TracePoint and AST, Examples of the gem's code are helpful for you, maybe. And, let's enjoy darkness programming!!
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