Child Addicts

Child Development
Global Current Trends and Issue
Technology Addiction in Children

Transcript

1. Global Current Trends & Issue 2 0 2 1 Child Development Presentation
2. CONTENTS • Technology Addiction in Children • Technology Tools and Their Effect • Development and Health Risks of Digital Technology Usage • Recommendation • The Responsibility of Parents • Types of Parental Mediation • Conclusion
3. Child Addicts 01 Technology Addiction in Children
4. Addiction • Definition - An inability to stop doing or using something. • After a period of time, the adverse effects become a health risk. • It may involve the use of • Substances like drugs, alcohol • Behaviors like gambling, overeating • The addictive substances and behaviors intensely activate brain for reward, reinforcement, and involve the neurotransmitter dopamine in ‘desire’ to repeat the addictive behavior in addiction. • Addiction is associated with technology use or screen time especially among children. (Yücelyİğİt & Aral, 2018)
5. • Technology addiction • A non-chemical (behavioral), passive (e.g. TV) or active (e.g. computers) human-machine interaction that induces or reinforces the features of addictive tendencies. • There are more younger children between age 0-2 spending more hours per day online reading on the screens (Chaudron, 2015). • The media consumption between age 8-11 increased from 4.4 hours in 2005 to 11.1 hours in 2015 (OFCOM, 2015). • The excessive screen time and technology addiction have become part of children’s lives and influenced on their cognitive, emotional and social development (Mustafaoğlu, Zirek, Yasacı, & Razak Özdinçler, 2018). • The potential impact of these health risks on our children’s future lives and the well-being of future societies could be dramatic. • Public awareness of this problem needs to be fostered in communities and on a worldwide scale (Dresp-Langley, 2020). Technology Addiction
6. Technology Addiction • Children use screen for purposes like watching videos or movie, listening to music, playing online/offline games on computer or on game consoles and texting with friends or using mobile apps for social media (Yücelyİğİt & Aral, 2018). • These learning opportunities constitute a critical developmental point in children through the natural exploration and discovery of their own world (Blanchard & Moore, 2010). • Children’s brains are extremely flexible in this period. • A reasonable and well-balanced use of computers and digital media by children • May contribute positively to the development of academic, cognitive, and social skills • But such benefits are severely overshadowed by the tangible risks of an excessive exposure to digital environments (Dresp-Langley, 2020).
7. Child Addicts 02 Technology Tools and Their Effect
8. • Television • Children less than two years of age have influence language development and behavioral disturbances. • Digital Toys • The increasingly restricted use of outdoor playgrounds may negatively affect the normal development of children. • For normal development, children need to spend their time with their peers. (Mustafaoğlu, Zirek, Yasacı, & Razak Özdinçler, 2018) Technology Tools and Their Effect
9. • Computer • An early age can negatively affect academic success due to the low concentration, lack of attention and disorganization, undeveloped language skills, creativity, and imagination. • Internet • Easy access to illegal, violent, and sexual content • Communication with dangerous people • Excessive dependence on games • Example: news about an online games, Momo, in 2018 (Mustafaoğlu, Zirek, Yasacı, & Razak Özdinçler, 2018) Technology Tools and Their Effect
10. • Video Games • Violent video games can lead to aggressive behavior and inhibit creative game play. • Violence in video games are linked with real life violence which lead to social isolation and lack of communication with children. • Smart Phones • Passive aggressive, unprotected, socially incompatibility and obsession. • Those children at school negatively affect both own and their classmates’ attention. (Mustafaoğlu, Zirek, Yasacı, & Razak Özdinçler, 2018) Technology Tools and Their Effect
11. Child Addicts 03 Developmental and Health Risks of Digital Technology Usage
12. • Lack of attention, aggressive behaviors, and sleep problems are seen in preschool and school age children. • Children use their time inefficiently. • Early childhood experiences delay in cognitive, language, and social/emotional (Mustafaoğlu, Zirek, Yasacı, & Razak Özdinçler, 2018). • Children have to get up early for school and delayed bedtimes for online reading until late. • Delayed bedtimes causes poor performance in school, impaired learning, and psychological problems (Galland et al., 2015). • A negative impact on children’s cognitive development (Anderson & Subrahmanyam, 2017). Developmental/Behavioral Risks
13. • At home and in school environments, there is an increase in musculoskeletal problems. • Psychological factors are monitoring anxiety and somatic complaints (headache and abdominal pain), and exposure to sedentary activities like having poor body posture. • For this reason, playing with toys should be encouraged to minimize such risks. • Conscious instruction manuals for tablets and other technological devices should be provided to parents and caregivers. (Mustafaoğlu, Zirek, Yasacı, & Razak Özdinçler, 2018) Musculoskeletal System Problems
14. • For healthy development of children, 3-4 hours of daily physical activity and social interaction are needed. • A study on children (age 4-11) concluded that increased age was associated with decreased physical activity (Mustafaoğlu, Zirek, Yasacı, & Razak Özdinçler, 2018). • High screen time and insufficient physical activity have increased depressive, anxiety symptoms resulting in abdominal obesity, overweight and low high- density lipoprotein-cholesterol among children and adolescents. • Less screen time and more physical activity have lower risk of negative mental health symptoms among adolescents (Hrafnkelsdottir et al., 2018). Physical Inactivity
15. • The number of overweight or obese infants (age 0-5) has increased to 41 million in 2016 (World Health Organization, 2019). • To prevent the number getting increased, children follow the right diet will not be enough without physical activity. • Children take fewer fruits and vegetables and more energy snacks, soft drinks, or fast food will receive more energy from fats and have a higher total energy intake (Braithwaite et al., 2013). • Children consume a large proportion of their daily calories and meals during screen time (Smith, Buijs, Van Woudenberg, Bevelander, & Buijzen, 2020). Obesity
16. • The physical health effects are listed as • Poor sleep cycle, risk factors for cardiovascular diseases like high blood pressure, obesity, low HDL cholesterol, poor stress regulation, insulin resistance, impaired vision and reduced bone density. • Screen time sedentary behavior • Increases the risk of obesity, HDL dysfunction, and high blood pressure which are major risk factors for cardiovascular morbidity. • The psychological effects are listed as • Depressive symptoms, suicidal, ADHD-related behaviors, violent and fast-paced content risk for antisocial behavior and decreased prosocial behavior. (Lissak, 2018) Consequence of Health Effects
17. • Some risks related to children’s social relations are cyber-bullying, exposure to inappropriate adult content (e.g. pornography, tobacco or alcohol trade), improper social relations and online solicitation. • There is a significant positive correlation between cyber-bullying and internet addiction among adolescents (Cinar, Beyazıt, Yurdakul & Bütün-Ayhan, 2017). • Children with parental monitoring help to weaken the cyber victim- bully relationship (Hood & Duffy (2017). • ‘Facebook’, the most preferable social sharing website, is a platform where the cyber-bullying mostly takes place (Özdemir & Akar, 2011). Cyber-Bullying
18. • Maladapted and excessive use of the internet results in a new syndrome, Internet Addiction (IA) or Internet Addiction Disorder (IAD). • Ivan Goldberg, a New York–based psychiatrist, first described it in 1995 (Goldberg, 1996). • IAD is a disabling condition, which has a severe impact on young people’s brain function (Dresp-Langley, 2020). • It is a subtype of internet gaming disorder (IGD), which is video game addiction, included in Section 3 of the DSM 5 (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). • Sometimes called pathologic/problematic internet use (PIU) in terms of an impulse control disorder characterized by uncontrolled internet use. Internet Addictive Disorder (IAD)
19. • In 2013, almost 57% of children (age 3-17) used the internet at home (Ferrara et al., 2018). • Heavy internet use has potential side effects like loss of control over the use of the internet, adverse effects on other daily activities, emotional status, and communication among family members (Kawabe et al., 2016). • Molecular and functional imaging are used to investigate the neurobiological mechanisms of internet addiction (IA) (Hou et al., 2012). • MRI studies reveal structural changes in the frontal cortex is due to functional abnormalities. • Nuclear Medicine findings show that IA causes dysfunction of the brain dopaminergic system, indicating that de-regulation of the prefrontal cortex may underlie reward specific uncontrolled behavior in the internet overuse. Internet Addictive Disorder (IAD)
20. • Young children spend their time indoors with their eyes glued to the screen are an “abnormal visual experience” • Which prevent them from exercising their far vision capacities under well- balanced natural viewing conditions • Lifestyles that place emphasis on sports and outdoor living and where childrens grow up in Canada, Australia or New Zealand have the lowest occurrence of myopia. • When childrens are spending time outdoors, they are actively using and training their long distance vision by focusing on objects further away in their visual field. • There is a high degree of visual plasticity with sensitive periods (Fuhrmann, Knoll, & Blakemore, 2015) of visual functional maturation for the development of form and motion sensitive visual capabilities (Atkinson & Braddick, 2013) in very young children (age 0-2) (Kiorpes, 2016). Myopia and Early Blindness
21. • Physiological systems are controlled by circadian rhythms, which influence our sleep– wake behavior, hormone secretion, cellular functions, and gene expression. • Circadian disruption by blue light source exposure (Rich & Longcore, 2006) disturbs these processes causing alertness and develop cancer, metabolic dysfunction and mood disorders (Wood, Rea, Plitnick, & Figueiro, 2013). • Light is the major entraining cue used by the body to discriminate day and night. • When light exposure is not timed properly, biological and behavioral rhythms are desynchronized, which has severe consequences for our health. • Excessive daytime sleepiness can lead to obesity, anxiety, and sleep disorders in young children (Falbe et al., 2015; Buxton et al., 2015). Exposure to the Wrong Kind of Light at the Wrong Time
22. • Daylight exposure increases retinal dopamine in the visual system, slows down the progression of myopia (Spillmann, 2020) and prevent of early vision loss in children (Yan, Yu, Jiang, & Zhu, 2018). • Since vitamin D and melatonin are functionally related, insufficiency in both engenders health risks like obesity (Trinko et al., 2016), poor sleep (Gong, 2018), depression (Anjum et al., 2018), and addictive behaviours (Gao et al., 2018) apart from physiological issues like poor bone growth and muscle function (Weydert, 2014). • The neurohormonal effects of vitamin D and melatonin deficiency on brain development and behavior, linked to cognitive impairment and mental health disorders. Consequences of Vitamin D and Melatonin Deficiency
23. • Obesity rates in children with low levels of circulating vitamin D3 has a high adiposity index (Aguirre Castaneda, Nader, Weaver, Singh, & Kumar, 2012). • Healthy sleep is linked with vitamin D regulation of tryptophan hydroxylase (TRPH) expression—the rate-limiting enzyme in serotonin and melatonin production in the brain. • A subgroup of photosensitive retinal ganglion cells mediates the light- dark cycles to regulate melatonin secretion (Chang et al., 2018). • Without sufficient serotonin production, melatonin will not increase to signal the body to go to sleep at night (Patrick & Ames, 2015). Consequences of Vitamin D and Melatonin Deficiency
24. • Dopamine is critical for understanding and treating the multitude of psychiatric disorders, including digital addiction that originate from perturbations of the dopamine system (Ferris et al., 2014). • Dysfunction of the dopamine system can cause a variety of nervous system diseases. • Patients with IGD has a significant decrease in dopamine in the striatum which decrease serotonin (Ariatama, Effendy, & Amin, 2019). • Excessive online by children will have a negative effect on dopamine-dependent behaviors (Liu & Luo, 2015). • Dopamine transmitter pathway deregulation is a consequence of oxidative stress in the body (Juárez Olguín, Calderón Guzmán, Hernández García, & Barragán Mejía, 2016). Early Deregulation of Neurotransmitter Pathways in the Developing Brain
25. • Functional MRI studies showing that IGD adolescents and adults • Have reduced gray matter volume in regions • Associated with attention motor coordination executive function • Lower white matter measures in regions • Controlling for both serotonin and dopamine dependent decision- making, behavioral inhibition and emotional regulation • Leading to increased risk-taking and diminished impulse control ability • Which is common in all forms of addiction (Weinstein, 2017) Early Deregulation of Neurotransmitter Pathways in the Developing Brain
26. Child Addicts 04 Recommendation
27. • The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommends • For children ages 2 to 5 years • To limit screen use to 1 hour per day of high-quality programs • To place consistent limits on the time spent • For 6 years and older • To make sure that the media does not affect adequate sleep, physical activity and other behaviors essential to health (AAP, 2016) Recommendation
28. Child Addicts 05 The Responsibility of Parents
29. • To ensure that children are able to implement and benefit • From the principles of balanced nutrition, quality sleep, adequate physical activity and positive social interaction • For healthy growth and development • By making plans based on their age, health status, character, and level of development. The Responsibility of Parents • Be aware of their duties and responsibilities in modeling appropriate technology use while also striking a balance between technology usage and other activities. • Be aware that their technological device use may also have negative effects on their children. (Mustafaoğlu, Zirek, Yasacı, & Razak Özdinçler, 2018)
30. Child Addicts 06 Types of Parental Mediation
31. • According to the Media Policy Brief 17, restrictive and enabling parents reduce the potential negative effects of screen media on children by restricting the time spent on screen media. • However, heavily restriction reduces the chances for learning and engagement (Blum-Ross & Livingstone, 2016). • Most adults agreed to limit screen time of the children no more than 2 hours on school days (Schoeppe et al., 2016). • Mothers impose higher screen time restrictions than fathers. • Most parents reported a positive perception on their children’s academic success, but having the negative effect on family relations (Odabaşı, 2005). Types of Parental Mediation
32. Child Addicts 07 Conclusion
33. • Children need guidance at the very early ages of their first interactions with digital devices, rewarding habits will then start forming and become permanent. • Setting the limits, being a role model, keeping the potentially addictive devices out of the bedrooms are necessary actions to avoid misuse of technological devices. • Raising children’s awareness by talking to them, encouraging them to use productively and guiding them at home and at school is more essential to attain tactile consequences. • Health service personnel, like pediatricians, psychologists and child development specialists, play a role of a bridge to show the latest study results to the public by working in coordination with both families and schools. (Yücelyİğİt & Aral, 2018) Conclusion
34. AAP. (2016). American Academy of Pediatrics Council on Communications and Media: Media Use in School-Aged Children and Adolescents. Pediatrics, 138(5), e20162592. doi: 10.1542/peds.2016-2592 Aguirre Castaneda, R., Nader, N., Weaver, A., Singh, R., & Kumar, S. (2012). Response to vitamin D3 Supplementation in obese and non-obese Caucasian adolescents. Hormone Research in Paediatrics, 78(4), 226-231. doi:10.1159/000343446 American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). doi:10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596 Anderson, D. R., Subrahmanyam, K., & On behalf of the Cognitive Impacts of Digital Media Workgroup. (2017). Digital screen media and cognitive development. Pediatrics, 140(Supplement 2), S57-S61. doi:10.1542/peds.2016-1758c Anjum, I., Jaffery, S. S., Fayyaz, M., Samoo, Z., & Anjum, S. (2018). The Role of Vitamin D in Brain Health: A Mini Literature Review. Cureus, 10(7), e2960. doi:10.7759/cureus.2960 Ariatama, B., Effendy, E., & Amin, M. M. (2019). Relationship between Internet Gaming Disorder with Depressive Syndrome and Dopamine Transporter Condition in Online Game Players. Open Access Macedonian Journal of Medical Sciences, 7(16), 2638- 2642. doi:10.3889/oamjms.2019.476 Atkinson, J., & Braddick, O. (2013). Inferences about infants’ visual brain mechanisms. Visual Neuroscience, 30(5-6), 185-195. doi:10.1017/s0952523813000497 Blanchard, J., & Moore, T. (2010). The digital world of young children: Impact on emergent literacy [White paper]. Retrieved from https://a.s.kqed.net/pdf/education/earlylearning/media-symposium/digital-world-children-pearson.pdf?trackurl References
35. Blum-Ross, A. & Livingstone, S. (2016) Families and screen time: Current advice and emerging research. Media Policy Brief 17. London: Media Policy Project, London. School of Economics and Political Science. Retrieved from https://core.ac.uk/reader/42486704 Braithwaite, I., Stewart, A. W., Hancox, R. J., Beasley, R., Murphy, R., & Mitchell, E. A. (2013). The worldwide association between television viewing and obesity in children and adolescents: Cross sectional study. PLoS ONE, 8(9), e74263. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0074263 Buxton, O. M., Chang, A., Spilsbury, J. C., Bos, T., Emsellem, H., & Knutson, K. L. (2015). Sleep in the modern family: Protective family routines for child and adolescent sleep. Sleep Health, 1(1), 15-27. doi:10.1016/j.sleh.2014.12.002 Chang, C., Huang, T., Chen, H., Huang, T., Lin, L., Chang, Y., & Hsia, S. (2018). Protective effect of melatonin against oxidative stress-induced Apoptosis and enhanced autophagy in human retinal pigment epithelium cells. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, 2018, 9015765. doi:10.1155/2018/9015765 Chaudron, S. (2015). Young Children (0–8) and Digital Technology: A Qualitative Exploratory Study Across Seven Countries. Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union: Brussels, Belgium. doi:10.2788/00749 Cinar, G., Beyazit, U., Yurdakul, Y., & Ayhan, A. B. (2017). Investigation of the relationship between cyber bullying behaviours and internet addiction in adolescens. Pressacademia, 4(1), 123-128. doi:10.17261/pressacademia.2017.526 Dresp-Langley, B. (2020). Children’s health in the digital age. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(9), 3240. doi:10.3390/ijerph17093240 Falbe, J., Davison, K. K., Franckle, R. L., Ganter, C., Gortmaker, S. L., Smith, L., … Taveras, E. M. (2015). Sleep duration, restfulness, and screens in the sleep environment. Pediatrics, 135(2), e367-e375. doi:10.1542/peds.2014-2306 Ferrara, P., Corsello, G., Ianniello, F., Sbordone, A., Ehrich, J., Giardino, I., & Pettoello-Mantovani, M. (2017). Internet addiction: Starting the debate on health and well-being of children overexposed to digital media. The Journal of Pediatrics, 191, 280- 281.e1. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2017.09.054
36. Ferris, M. J., España, R. A., Locke, J. L., Konstantopoulos, J. K., Rose, J. H., Chen, R., & Jones, S. R. (2014). Dopamine transporters govern diurnal variation in extracellular dopamine tone. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(26), E2751- E2759. doi:10.1073/pnas.1407935111 Galland, B., Spruyt, K., Dawes, P., McDowall, P. S., Elder, D., & Schaughency, E. (2015). Sleep disordered breathing and academic performance: A meta-analysis. Pediatrics, 136(4), e934-e946. doi:10.1542/peds.2015-1677 Gao, Q., Kou, T., Zhuang, B., Ren, Y., Dong, X., & Wang, Q. (2018). The Association between Vitamin D Deficiency and Sleep Disorders: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Nutrients, 10(10), 1395. doi:10.3390/nu10101395 Goldberg I. (1006). Internet Addictive Disorder (IAD) Diagnostic Criteria. Retrieved 22/03/2021 from http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.psycom.net%2Fiadcriteria.html&date=2013-02-06 Gong, Q., Li, S., Li, H., Chen, Q., Li, X., & Xu, G. (2018). 25-Hydroxyvitamin D Status and Its Association with Sleep Duration in Chinese Schoolchildren. Nutrients, 10(8), 1013. doi:10.3390/nu10081013 Hood, M., & Duffy, A.L. (2017). Understanding the relationship between cybervictimisation and cyber-bullying on Social Network Sites: The role of moderating factors. Personality and Individual Differences, 133, 103-108. 10.1016/j.paid.2017.04.004. Hou, H., Jia, S., Hu, S., Fan, R., Sun, W., Sun, T., & Zhang, H. (2012). Reduced Striatal dopamine transporters in people with internet addiction disorder. Journal of Biomedicine and Biotechnology, 2012, 854524. doi:10.1155/2012/854524 Hrafnkelsdottir, S. M., Brychta, R. J., Rognvaldsdottir, V., Gestsdottir, S., Chen, K. Y., Johannsson, E., … Arngrimsson, S. A. (2018). Less screen time and more frequent vigorous physical activity is associated with lower risk of reporting negative mental health symptoms among Icelandic adolescents. PLOS ONE, 13(4), e0196286. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0196286 Juárez Olguín, H., Calderón Guzmán, D., Hernández García, E., & Barragán Mejía, G. (2016). The Role of Dopamine and Its Dysfunction as a Consequence of Oxidative Stress. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, 2016, 9730467. doi:10.1155/2016/9730467 Kawabe, K., Horiuchi, F., Ochi, M., Oka, Y., & Ueno, S. (2016). Internet addiction: Prevalence and relation with mental states in adolescents. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 70(9), 405-412. doi:10.1111/pcn.12402
37. Kiorpes, L. (2016). The Puzzle of Visual Development: Behavior and Neural Limits. The Journal of Neuroscience, 36(45), 11384- 11393. doi:10.1523/jneurosci.2937-16.2016 Lissak, G. (2018). Adverse physiological and psychological effects of screen time on children and adolescents: Literature review and case study. Environmental Research, 164, 149-157. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2018.01.015 Liu, M., & Luo, J. (2015). Relationship between peripheral blood dopamine level and internet addiction disorder in adolescents: a pilot study. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, 8(6), 9943–9948. Mustafaoğlu, R., Zirek, E., Yasacı, Z., & Razak Özdinçler, A. (2018). The Negative Effects of Digital Technology Usage on Children’s Development and Health. Addicta: The Turkish Journal on Addictions, 5(2), 239-247. doi:10.15805/addicta.2018.5.2.0051 Odabaşı, F. H. (2005). Parent’s Views On Internet Use. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology (TOJET), 4(1), 38- 45. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1102455.pdf OFCOM (2015). Children and parents: Media use and attitudes report 2015. Retrieved from https://www.ofcom.org.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0024/78513/childrens_parents_nov2015.pdf Özdemir, M. & Akar, F. (2011). Examination of High School Students’ Opinions on Cyberbullying in Terms of Various Variables. Educational Administration: Theory and Practice, 17(4), 605-626. Retrieved from https://www.academia.edu/21872114/Lise_%C3%96%C4%9Frencilerinin_Siber_Zorbal%C4%B1%C4%9Fa_%C4%B0li%C5%9Fkin_G%C3%B 6r%C3%BC%C5%9Flerinin_Baz%C4%B1_De%C4%9Fi%C5%9Fkenler_Bak%C4%B1m%C4%B1ndan_%C4%B0ncelenmesi Patrick, R. P., & Ames, B. N. (2015). Vitamin D and the omega‐3 fatty acids control serotonin synthesis and action, Part 2: Relevance for ADHD, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and impulsive behavior. The FASEB Journal, 29(6), 2207-2222. doi:10.1096/fj.14-268342 Rich, C. & Longcore, T. (2006). Ecological Consequences of Artificial Night Lighting. Island Press: Washington, D.
38. Schoeppe, S., Rebar, A. L., Short, C.E., Alley, S., Van Lippevelde, W. & Vandelanotte, C. (2016) How is adults’ screen time behaviour influencing their views on screen time restrictions for children? A cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health, 16, 201. doi.org/10.1186/s12889-016-2789-3 Smith, C. R., Buijs, L., Van Woudenberg, T. J., Bevelander, K. E., & Buijzen, M. (2020). The impact of social media influencers on children’s dietary behaviors. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2975. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02975 Spillmann, L. (2019). Stopping the rise of myopia in Asia. Graefe's Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology, 258(5), 943-959. doi:10.1007/s00417-019-04555-0 Trinko, J. R., Land, B. B., Solecki, W. B., Wickham, R. J., Tellez, L. A., Maldonado-Aviles, J., … DiLeone, R. J. (2016). Vitamin D3: A Role in Dopamine Circuit Regulation, Diet-Induced Obesity, and Drug Consumption. eNeuro, 3(2), ENEURO.0122-15.2016. doi:10.1523/eneuro.0122-15.2016 Weinstein, A. M. (2017). An update overview on brain imaging studies of internet gaming disorder. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 8. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00185 Weydert, J. (2014). Vitamin D in children’s health. Children, 1(2), 208-226. doi:10.3390/children1020208 Wood, B., Rea, M. S., Plitnick, B., & Figueiro, M. G. (2013). Light level and duration of exposure determine the impact of self- luminous tablets on melatonin suppression. Applied Ergonomics, 44(2), 237-240. doi:10.1016/j.apergo.2012.07.008 World Health Organization. (2019). WHO Commission on Ending Childhood Obesity: Facts and Figures. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/end-childhood-obesity/facts/en/ Yan, G., Yu, L., Jiang, S., & Zhu, J. (2018). Melatonin antagonizes oxidative stress-induced mitochondrial dysfunction in retinal pigmented epithelium cells via melatonin receptor 1 (MT1). The Journal of Toxicological Sciences, 43(11), 659-669. doi:10.2131/jts.43.659 Yücelyİğİt, S. & Aral, N. (2018). Chapter 7: Technology Addiction in Children. Retrieved from https://www.academia.edu/38194931/TECHNOLOGY_ADDICTION_in_CHILDREN_pdf?fbclid=IwAR3g7pp2sqyA4EdTl- HYSfkzT7A02Tiy-5TT51QnJuYvs5tOq64gxt2k7SE
39. 2 0 2 1