Invited talk given by Rodrigo Nemmen with a broad, short introduction to relativistic jets produced from stellar deaths. Slight emphasis on what we can learn with GMT observations.
• Importance of jets
• How jets are produced
• Gamma-ray bursts
• Black hole binaries
• Unification
GMT Science Conference, Stars: Birth and Death. Honolulu, Hawaii.
Rodrigo Nemmen
Universidade de Sao Paulo
Jets from
stellar deaths
M. Weiss, CfA
Jets from
stellar deaths
M. Weiss, CfA
How jets form
GRBs
X-ray binaries
Unification
Rodrigo Nemmen
Universidade de Sao Paulo
Why are relativistic jets important?
Labs for high-energy astrophysics and particle
acceleration across mass scale
Beaming 㱺 very high luminosities 㱺 seen at
high-z ∴ cosmological messengers
Sources of EM radiation, cosmic rays, neutrinos
∴ multimessenger astronomy
γ
ν
p
Rodrigo Nemmen
How jets are formed
large scale B + accretion
+ rotation
Semenov+2004, Science
magnetic
flux tube
ergosphere
Requirements
v
⊵
spinning
black hole
Rodrigo Nemmen
How jets are formed
large scale B + accretion
+ rotation
Semenov+2004, Science
Requirements
Rodrigo Nemmen
How jets are formed
large scale B + accretion
+ rotation
Semenov+2004, Science
Requirements
Rodrigo Nemmen
How jets are formed
large scale B + accretion
+ rotation
Semenov+2004, Science
Requirements
P =
B2
8⇡
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
AAACDHicdVDLSsNAFJ34rPUVdSO4GSyCCwkTNdgsBNGNywrWFppaJtOJHTpJhplJoYT6CX6FW125E7f+gwv/xUmtoKIHLhzOuZd77wkFZ0oj9GZNTc/Mzs2XFsqLS8srq/ba+pVKM0lonaQ8lc0QK8pZQuuaaU6bQlIch5w2wv5Z4TcGVCqWJpd6KGg7xjcJixjB2kgde7N2HEQSk/y0E4geu94f5VUYCDbq2BXkIM/3XASR4yHXPyiI71cPPQ+6DhqjAiaodez3oJuSLKaJJhwr1XKR0O0cS80Ip6NykCkqMOnjG9oyNMExVXvdARNqTNv5+JkR3DFmF0apNJVoOFa/D+c4VmoYh6YzxrqnfnuF+JfXynRUbecsEZmmCflcFGUc6hQWycAuk5RoPjQEE8nM2ZD0sMlGm/zKJo+vp+H/5GrfcZHjXhxWTk4nyZTAFtgGu8AFR+AEnIMaqAMCbsE9eACP1p31ZD1bL5+tU9ZkZgP8gPX6AVytm2E=
Rodrigo Nemmen
How jets are formed
large scale B + accretion
+ rotation
Semenov+2004, Science
Requirements
How jets are formed
large scale B + accretion
+ rotation
Semenov+2004, Science
Requirements
How jets are formed
large scale B + accretion
+ rotation
Semenov+2004, Science
Requirements
Jet
How jets are formed
large scale B + accretion
+ rotation
Semenov+2004, Science
Requirements
Blandford-Znajek
mechanism:
Jet power
rotation frequency
magnetic flux
∝ (ΦΩ)2 ∼ (
a
M
ΦBH)
2
∼ a2
·
Mc2
(relevant for GRBs and
microquasars)
Jet
How jets are formed
large scale B + accretion
+ rotation
Semenov+2004, Science
Requirements
environment
radiation
GR
Lense-Thirring precession
Complications for theory
Blandford-Znajek
mechanism:
Jet power
rotation frequency
magnetic flux
∝ (ΦΩ)2 ∼ (
a
M
ΦBH)
2
∼ a2
·
Mc2
(relevant for GRBs and
microquasars)
Jet
Best way of producing relativistic jets
Compact object accreting highly magnetized gas
magnetized
accretion flow
Such conditions are natural outcomes of stellar deaths
~10-4
pc?
3C 31
4 I.F. Mirabel
Fig. 1.2 The British journal Nature announced on July 16, 1992 the discovery of a microquasar in
the Galactic center region [22]. The image shows the synchrotron emission at a radio wavelength
Black hole
binaries
(μquasars) ~1 pc
1E1740.7-2942
~1 Mpc ~100 kpc
Active galactic
nuclei
Tidal
disruption
events
Long GRBs
Gamma-ray bursts
Short GRBs
HH 30
Young
stellar
objects
1000 AU
106-1010 M⊙
few-10 M⊙
106-107 M⊙
few M
⊙
few-100 M⊙
~10-4
pc?
3C 31
4 I.F. Mirabel
Fig. 1.2 The British journal Nature announced on July 16, 1992 the discovery of a microquasar in
the Galactic center region [22]. The image shows the synchrotron emission at a radio wavelength
Black hole
binaries
(μquasars) ~1 pc
1E1740.7-2942
~1 Mpc ~100 kpc
Active galactic
nuclei
Tidal
disruption
events
Long GRBs
Gamma-ray bursts
Short GRBs
HH 30
Young
stellar
objects
1000 AU
kilonovas
supernovae
GW
s
✅
GWs ?
~10-4
pc?
4 I.F. Mirabel
Fig. 1.2 The British journal Nature announced on July 16, 1992 the discovery of a microquasar in
the Galactic center region [22]. The image shows the synchrotron emission at a radio wavelength
Black hole
binaries
(μquasars) ~1 pc
1E1740.7-2942
Long GRBs
Gamma-ray bursts
Short GRBs
GW
s
✅
GWs ?
GMT opportunities
Jet emission in low and
very high states
G-CLEF, GMTNIRS
• Redshifts G-CLEF
• Afterglows G-CLEF
• Kilonovas G-CLEF,
GMTNIRS, GMTIFS
Jets from dying stars
Stay tuned for transients
talks tomorrow
(sessions 10 & 11)
Jets from collapsars: Long GRBs
rotating massive star
MacFadyen & Woosley 1999;
Woosley & Heger 2006;
Woosley & Bloom 2006
M ≳ 30M⊙
islands of explosion? (Sukhbold’s talk)
Jets from collapsars: Long GRBs
rotating massive star
MacFadyen & Woosley 1999;
Woosley & Heger 2006;
Woosley & Bloom 2006
M ≳ 30M⊙
core-collapses
islands of explosion? (Sukhbold’s talk)
Jets from collapsars: Long GRBs
rotating massive star
MacFadyen & Woosley 1999;
Woosley & Heger 2006;
Woosley & Bloom 2006
conditions for jet
production ✔
M ≳ 30M⊙
˙
M ˙
MEdd
BH accretion rate
accreting
Kerr BH
core-collapses
islands of explosion? (Sukhbold’s talk)
Jets from collapsars: Long GRBs
Ultrarelativistic magnetodynamic GRB jets 553
Figure 1. Cartoon of the large-scale structure of a GRB source (not to
scale). The major elements are a central engine which launches a polar
magnetically dominated ultrarelativistic jet, and a gaseous stellar envelope
(grey shading) which confines the jet. The central engine may be an accreting
rapidly rotating BH or a millisecond magnetar. For a failed supernova, there
could also be a disc wind which may additionally confine the jet.
within the pre-supernova core (Aloy et al. 2000; Zhang et al. 2003;
Morsony, Lazzati & Begelman 2007; Wang, Abel & Zhang 2007).
These simulations show that the jet collimates and accelerates as
it pushes its way through the confining stellar envelope, thus sug-
gesting that the envelope plays a crucial role in determining the
opening angle and Lorentz factor of the flow that emerges from the
Figure 2. Idealized model studied in this paper. The thick solid lines in
the upper panel show an azimuthal cut through a compact star surrounded
by a razor-thin disc. The star and the disc are threaded by magnetic field
lines, which are shown as thin solid lines. The magnetized plasma above
the star and the disc is assumed to be perfectly conducting and to have
an ultrahigh magnetization parameter. Arrows show the direction of the
poloidal electric current. The thick-dashed line indicates the field line that
separates the jet from the disc wind. The disc wind provides pressure support
for the jet and plays the role of the gaseous stellar envelope in Fig. 1.
The degree of pressure support is adjusted by varying the magnetic field
strength profile in the disc. The lower panel shows the angular frequency
of rotation of field lines as a function of the cylindrical radius of their foot-
points.
Ultrarelativistic magnetodynamic GRB jets 553
Figure 1. Cartoon of the large-scale structure of a GRB source (not to
scale). The major elements are a central engine which launches a polar
magnetically dominated ultrarelativistic jet, and a gaseous stellar envelope
(grey shading) which confines the jet. The central engine may be an accreting
rapidly rotating BH or a millisecond magnetar. For a failed supernova, there
could also be a disc wind which may additionally confine the jet.
within the pre-supernova core (Aloy et al. 2000; Zhang et al. 2003;
Morsony, Lazzati & Begelman 2007; Wang, Abel & Zhang 2007).
These simulations show that the jet collimates and accelerates as
it pushes its way through the confining stellar envelope, thus sug-
gesting that the envelope plays a crucial role in determining the
opening angle and Lorentz factor of the flow that emerges from the
Figure 2. Idealized model studied in this paper. The thick solid lines in
the upper panel show an azimuthal cut through a compact star surrounded
by a razor-thin disc. The star and the disc are threaded by magnetic field
lines, which are shown as thin solid lines. The magnetized plasma above
the star and the disc is assumed to be perfectly conducting and to have
an ultrahigh magnetization parameter. Arrows show the direction of the
poloidal electric current. The thick-dashed line indicates the field line that
separates the jet from the disc wind. The disc wind provides pressure support
for the jet and plays the role of the gaseous stellar envelope in Fig. 1.
The degree of pressure support is adjusted by varying the magnetic field
strength profile in the disc. The lower panel shows the angular frequency
of rotation of field lines as a function of the cylindrical radius of their foot-
points.
Figure 1. Cartoon of the large-scale structure of a GRB source (not to
scale). The major elements are a central engine which launches a polar
magnetically dominated ultrarelativistic jet, and a gaseous stellar envelope
(grey shading) which confines the jet. The central engine may be an accreting
rapidly rotating BH or a millisecond magnetar. For a failed supernova, there
could also be a disc wind which may additionally confine the jet.
within the pre-supernova core (Aloy et al. 2000; Zhang et al. 2003;
Morsony, Lazzati & Begelman 2007; Wang, Abel & Zhang 2007).
These simulations show that the jet collimates and accelerates as
it pushes its way through the confining stellar envelope, thus sug-
gesting that the envelope plays a crucial role in determining the
opening angle and Lorentz factor of the flow that emerges from the
star. If the collapsar system forms an accreting BH, then the ultra-
relativistic jet may be accompanied by a moderately relativistic disc
wind that may provide additional collimation for the jet (McKinney
2005b,2006b). We note that the larger the radius of the progenitor
star and/or the denser the stellar envelope, the more energy is re-
quired for the jet to have to penetrate the stellar envelope and reach
Figure 2. Idealized model studied in this paper. The thick solid lines in
the upper panel show an azimuthal cut through a compact star surrounded
by a razor-thin disc. The star and the disc are threaded by magnetic field
lines, which are shown as thin solid lines. The magnetized plasma above
the star and the disc is assumed to be perfectly conducting and to have
an ultrahigh magnetization parameter. Arrows show the direction of the
poloidal electric current. The thick-dashed line indicates the field line that
separates the jet from the disc wind. The disc wind provides pressure support
for the jet and plays the role of the gaseous stellar envelope in Fig. 1.
The degree of pressure support is adjusted by varying the magnetic field
strength profile in the disc. The lower panel shows the angular frequency
of rotation of field lines as a function of the cylindrical radius of their foot-
points.
parameter σ (Michel 1969; Goldreich & Julian 1970), we assume
σ → ∞. In this idealized model, the force-free disc wind plays
the role of the stellar envelope (plus any gaseous disc wind) that
collimates the jet in a real GRB (Fig. 1).
In the context of the collapsar picture, the ‘wind’ region of our
idealized model can be considered as a freely moving pressure
Figure 1. Cartoon of the large-scale structure of a GRB source (not to
scale). The major elements are a central engine which launches a polar
magnetically dominated ultrarelativistic jet, and a gaseous stellar envelope
(grey shading) which confines the jet. The central engine may be an accreting
rapidly rotating BH or a millisecond magnetar. For a failed supernova, there
could also be a disc wind which may additionally confine the jet.
within the pre-supernova core (Aloy et al. 2000; Zhang et al. 2003;
Morsony, Lazzati & Begelman 2007; Wang, Abel & Zhang 2007).
These simulations show that the jet collimates and accelerates as
it pushes its way through the confining stellar envelope, thus sug-
gesting that the envelope plays a crucial role in determining the
opening angle and Lorentz factor of the flow that emerges from the
star. If the collapsar system forms an accreting BH, then the ultra-
relativistic jet may be accompanied by a moderately relativistic disc
wind that may provide additional collimation for the jet (McKinney
2005b,2006b). We note that the larger the radius of the progenitor
star and/or the denser the stellar envelope, the more energy is re-
quired for the jet to have to penetrate the stellar envelope and reach
Figure 2. Idealized model studied in this paper. The thick solid lines in
the upper panel show an azimuthal cut through a compact star surrounded
by a razor-thin disc. The star and the disc are threaded by magnetic field
lines, which are shown as thin solid lines. The magnetized plasma above
the star and the disc is assumed to be perfectly conducting and to have
an ultrahigh magnetization parameter. Arrows show the direction of the
poloidal electric current. The thick-dashed line indicates the field line that
separates the jet from the disc wind. The disc wind provides pressure support
for the jet and plays the role of the gaseous stellar envelope in Fig. 1.
The degree of pressure support is adjusted by varying the magnetic field
strength profile in the disc. The lower panel shows the angular frequency
of rotation of field lines as a function of the cylindrical radius of their foot-
points.
parameter σ (Michel 1969; Goldreich & Julian 1970), we assume
σ → ∞. In this idealized model, the force-free disc wind plays
the role of the stellar envelope (plus any gaseous disc wind) that
collimates the jet in a real GRB (Fig. 1).
In the context of the collapsar picture, the ‘wind’ region of our
idealized model can be considered as a freely moving pressure
collapsar
Lorentz factor
γ ≫ 1
Eiso
jet
∼ 1050 − 1054 erg
Relativistic jet w/:
Jets from collapsars: Long GRBs
Ultrarelativistic magnetodynamic GRB jets 553
Figure 1. Cartoon of the large-scale structure of a GRB source (not to
scale). The major elements are a central engine which launches a polar
magnetically dominated ultrarelativistic jet, and a gaseous stellar envelope
(grey shading) which confines the jet. The central engine may be an accreting
rapidly rotating BH or a millisecond magnetar. For a failed supernova, there
could also be a disc wind which may additionally confine the jet.
within the pre-supernova core (Aloy et al. 2000; Zhang et al. 2003;
Morsony, Lazzati & Begelman 2007; Wang, Abel & Zhang 2007).
These simulations show that the jet collimates and accelerates as
it pushes its way through the confining stellar envelope, thus sug-
gesting that the envelope plays a crucial role in determining the
opening angle and Lorentz factor of the flow that emerges from the
Figure 2. Idealized model studied in this paper. The thick solid lines in
the upper panel show an azimuthal cut through a compact star surrounded
by a razor-thin disc. The star and the disc are threaded by magnetic field
lines, which are shown as thin solid lines. The magnetized plasma above
the star and the disc is assumed to be perfectly conducting and to have
an ultrahigh magnetization parameter. Arrows show the direction of the
poloidal electric current. The thick-dashed line indicates the field line that
separates the jet from the disc wind. The disc wind provides pressure support
for the jet and plays the role of the gaseous stellar envelope in Fig. 1.
The degree of pressure support is adjusted by varying the magnetic field
strength profile in the disc. The lower panel shows the angular frequency
of rotation of field lines as a function of the cylindrical radius of their foot-
points.
Ultrarelativistic magnetodynamic GRB jets 553
Figure 1. Cartoon of the large-scale structure of a GRB source (not to
scale). The major elements are a central engine which launches a polar
magnetically dominated ultrarelativistic jet, and a gaseous stellar envelope
(grey shading) which confines the jet. The central engine may be an accreting
rapidly rotating BH or a millisecond magnetar. For a failed supernova, there
could also be a disc wind which may additionally confine the jet.
within the pre-supernova core (Aloy et al. 2000; Zhang et al. 2003;
Morsony, Lazzati & Begelman 2007; Wang, Abel & Zhang 2007).
These simulations show that the jet collimates and accelerates as
it pushes its way through the confining stellar envelope, thus sug-
gesting that the envelope plays a crucial role in determining the
opening angle and Lorentz factor of the flow that emerges from the
Figure 2. Idealized model studied in this paper. The thick solid lines in
the upper panel show an azimuthal cut through a compact star surrounded
by a razor-thin disc. The star and the disc are threaded by magnetic field
lines, which are shown as thin solid lines. The magnetized plasma above
the star and the disc is assumed to be perfectly conducting and to have
an ultrahigh magnetization parameter. Arrows show the direction of the
poloidal electric current. The thick-dashed line indicates the field line that
separates the jet from the disc wind. The disc wind provides pressure support
for the jet and plays the role of the gaseous stellar envelope in Fig. 1.
The degree of pressure support is adjusted by varying the magnetic field
strength profile in the disc. The lower panel shows the angular frequency
of rotation of field lines as a function of the cylindrical radius of their foot-
points.
Figure 1. Cartoon of the large-scale structure of a GRB source (not to
scale). The major elements are a central engine which launches a polar
magnetically dominated ultrarelativistic jet, and a gaseous stellar envelope
(grey shading) which confines the jet. The central engine may be an accreting
rapidly rotating BH or a millisecond magnetar. For a failed supernova, there
could also be a disc wind which may additionally confine the jet.
within the pre-supernova core (Aloy et al. 2000; Zhang et al. 2003;
Morsony, Lazzati & Begelman 2007; Wang, Abel & Zhang 2007).
These simulations show that the jet collimates and accelerates as
it pushes its way through the confining stellar envelope, thus sug-
gesting that the envelope plays a crucial role in determining the
opening angle and Lorentz factor of the flow that emerges from the
star. If the collapsar system forms an accreting BH, then the ultra-
relativistic jet may be accompanied by a moderately relativistic disc
wind that may provide additional collimation for the jet (McKinney
2005b,2006b). We note that the larger the radius of the progenitor
star and/or the denser the stellar envelope, the more energy is re-
quired for the jet to have to penetrate the stellar envelope and reach
Figure 2. Idealized model studied in this paper. The thick solid lines in
the upper panel show an azimuthal cut through a compact star surrounded
by a razor-thin disc. The star and the disc are threaded by magnetic field
lines, which are shown as thin solid lines. The magnetized plasma above
the star and the disc is assumed to be perfectly conducting and to have
an ultrahigh magnetization parameter. Arrows show the direction of the
poloidal electric current. The thick-dashed line indicates the field line that
separates the jet from the disc wind. The disc wind provides pressure support
for the jet and plays the role of the gaseous stellar envelope in Fig. 1.
The degree of pressure support is adjusted by varying the magnetic field
strength profile in the disc. The lower panel shows the angular frequency
of rotation of field lines as a function of the cylindrical radius of their foot-
points.
parameter σ (Michel 1969; Goldreich & Julian 1970), we assume
σ → ∞. In this idealized model, the force-free disc wind plays
the role of the stellar envelope (plus any gaseous disc wind) that
collimates the jet in a real GRB (Fig. 1).
In the context of the collapsar picture, the ‘wind’ region of our
idealized model can be considered as a freely moving pressure
Figure 1. Cartoon of the large-scale structure of a GRB source (not to
scale). The major elements are a central engine which launches a polar
magnetically dominated ultrarelativistic jet, and a gaseous stellar envelope
(grey shading) which confines the jet. The central engine may be an accreting
rapidly rotating BH or a millisecond magnetar. For a failed supernova, there
could also be a disc wind which may additionally confine the jet.
within the pre-supernova core (Aloy et al. 2000; Zhang et al. 2003;
Morsony, Lazzati & Begelman 2007; Wang, Abel & Zhang 2007).
These simulations show that the jet collimates and accelerates as
it pushes its way through the confining stellar envelope, thus sug-
gesting that the envelope plays a crucial role in determining the
opening angle and Lorentz factor of the flow that emerges from the
star. If the collapsar system forms an accreting BH, then the ultra-
relativistic jet may be accompanied by a moderately relativistic disc
wind that may provide additional collimation for the jet (McKinney
2005b,2006b). We note that the larger the radius of the progenitor
star and/or the denser the stellar envelope, the more energy is re-
quired for the jet to have to penetrate the stellar envelope and reach
Figure 2. Idealized model studied in this paper. The thick solid lines in
the upper panel show an azimuthal cut through a compact star surrounded
by a razor-thin disc. The star and the disc are threaded by magnetic field
lines, which are shown as thin solid lines. The magnetized plasma above
the star and the disc is assumed to be perfectly conducting and to have
an ultrahigh magnetization parameter. Arrows show the direction of the
poloidal electric current. The thick-dashed line indicates the field line that
separates the jet from the disc wind. The disc wind provides pressure support
for the jet and plays the role of the gaseous stellar envelope in Fig. 1.
The degree of pressure support is adjusted by varying the magnetic field
strength profile in the disc. The lower panel shows the angular frequency
of rotation of field lines as a function of the cylindrical radius of their foot-
points.
parameter σ (Michel 1969; Goldreich & Julian 1970), we assume
σ → ∞. In this idealized model, the force-free disc wind plays
the role of the stellar envelope (plus any gaseous disc wind) that
collimates the jet in a real GRB (Fig. 1).
In the context of the collapsar picture, the ‘wind’ region of our
idealized model can be considered as a freely moving pressure
collapsar
jet punctures stellar
envelope → GRB along jet
axis (beaming)
Lorentz factor
γ ≫ 1
Eiso
jet
∼ 1050 − 1054 erg
Relativistic jet w/:
Jets from collapsars: Long GRBs
Ultrarelativistic magnetodynamic GRB jets 553
Figure 1. Cartoon of the large-scale structure of a GRB source (not to
scale). The major elements are a central engine which launches a polar
magnetically dominated ultrarelativistic jet, and a gaseous stellar envelope
(grey shading) which confines the jet. The central engine may be an accreting
rapidly rotating BH or a millisecond magnetar. For a failed supernova, there
could also be a disc wind which may additionally confine the jet.
within the pre-supernova core (Aloy et al. 2000; Zhang et al. 2003;
Morsony, Lazzati & Begelman 2007; Wang, Abel & Zhang 2007).
These simulations show that the jet collimates and accelerates as
it pushes its way through the confining stellar envelope, thus sug-
gesting that the envelope plays a crucial role in determining the
opening angle and Lorentz factor of the flow that emerges from the
Figure 2. Idealized model studied in this paper. The thick solid lines in
the upper panel show an azimuthal cut through a compact star surrounded
by a razor-thin disc. The star and the disc are threaded by magnetic field
lines, which are shown as thin solid lines. The magnetized plasma above
the star and the disc is assumed to be perfectly conducting and to have
an ultrahigh magnetization parameter. Arrows show the direction of the
poloidal electric current. The thick-dashed line indicates the field line that
separates the jet from the disc wind. The disc wind provides pressure support
for the jet and plays the role of the gaseous stellar envelope in Fig. 1.
The degree of pressure support is adjusted by varying the magnetic field
strength profile in the disc. The lower panel shows the angular frequency
of rotation of field lines as a function of the cylindrical radius of their foot-
points.
Ultrarelativistic magnetodynamic GRB jets 553
Figure 1. Cartoon of the large-scale structure of a GRB source (not to
scale). The major elements are a central engine which launches a polar
magnetically dominated ultrarelativistic jet, and a gaseous stellar envelope
(grey shading) which confines the jet. The central engine may be an accreting
rapidly rotating BH or a millisecond magnetar. For a failed supernova, there
could also be a disc wind which may additionally confine the jet.
within the pre-supernova core (Aloy et al. 2000; Zhang et al. 2003;
Morsony, Lazzati & Begelman 2007; Wang, Abel & Zhang 2007).
These simulations show that the jet collimates and accelerates as
it pushes its way through the confining stellar envelope, thus sug-
gesting that the envelope plays a crucial role in determining the
opening angle and Lorentz factor of the flow that emerges from the
Figure 2. Idealized model studied in this paper. The thick solid lines in
the upper panel show an azimuthal cut through a compact star surrounded
by a razor-thin disc. The star and the disc are threaded by magnetic field
lines, which are shown as thin solid lines. The magnetized plasma above
the star and the disc is assumed to be perfectly conducting and to have
an ultrahigh magnetization parameter. Arrows show the direction of the
poloidal electric current. The thick-dashed line indicates the field line that
separates the jet from the disc wind. The disc wind provides pressure support
for the jet and plays the role of the gaseous stellar envelope in Fig. 1.
The degree of pressure support is adjusted by varying the magnetic field
strength profile in the disc. The lower panel shows the angular frequency
of rotation of field lines as a function of the cylindrical radius of their foot-
points.
Figure 1. Cartoon of the large-scale structure of a GRB source (not to
scale). The major elements are a central engine which launches a polar
magnetically dominated ultrarelativistic jet, and a gaseous stellar envelope
(grey shading) which confines the jet. The central engine may be an accreting
rapidly rotating BH or a millisecond magnetar. For a failed supernova, there
could also be a disc wind which may additionally confine the jet.
within the pre-supernova core (Aloy et al. 2000; Zhang et al. 2003;
Morsony, Lazzati & Begelman 2007; Wang, Abel & Zhang 2007).
These simulations show that the jet collimates and accelerates as
it pushes its way through the confining stellar envelope, thus sug-
gesting that the envelope plays a crucial role in determining the
opening angle and Lorentz factor of the flow that emerges from the
star. If the collapsar system forms an accreting BH, then the ultra-
relativistic jet may be accompanied by a moderately relativistic disc
wind that may provide additional collimation for the jet (McKinney
2005b,2006b). We note that the larger the radius of the progenitor
star and/or the denser the stellar envelope, the more energy is re-
quired for the jet to have to penetrate the stellar envelope and reach
Figure 2. Idealized model studied in this paper. The thick solid lines in
the upper panel show an azimuthal cut through a compact star surrounded
by a razor-thin disc. The star and the disc are threaded by magnetic field
lines, which are shown as thin solid lines. The magnetized plasma above
the star and the disc is assumed to be perfectly conducting and to have
an ultrahigh magnetization parameter. Arrows show the direction of the
poloidal electric current. The thick-dashed line indicates the field line that
separates the jet from the disc wind. The disc wind provides pressure support
for the jet and plays the role of the gaseous stellar envelope in Fig. 1.
The degree of pressure support is adjusted by varying the magnetic field
strength profile in the disc. The lower panel shows the angular frequency
of rotation of field lines as a function of the cylindrical radius of their foot-
points.
parameter σ (Michel 1969; Goldreich & Julian 1970), we assume
σ → ∞. In this idealized model, the force-free disc wind plays
the role of the stellar envelope (plus any gaseous disc wind) that
collimates the jet in a real GRB (Fig. 1).
In the context of the collapsar picture, the ‘wind’ region of our
idealized model can be considered as a freely moving pressure
Figure 1. Cartoon of the large-scale structure of a GRB source (not to
scale). The major elements are a central engine which launches a polar
magnetically dominated ultrarelativistic jet, and a gaseous stellar envelope
(grey shading) which confines the jet. The central engine may be an accreting
rapidly rotating BH or a millisecond magnetar. For a failed supernova, there
could also be a disc wind which may additionally confine the jet.
within the pre-supernova core (Aloy et al. 2000; Zhang et al. 2003;
Morsony, Lazzati & Begelman 2007; Wang, Abel & Zhang 2007).
These simulations show that the jet collimates and accelerates as
it pushes its way through the confining stellar envelope, thus sug-
gesting that the envelope plays a crucial role in determining the
opening angle and Lorentz factor of the flow that emerges from the
star. If the collapsar system forms an accreting BH, then the ultra-
relativistic jet may be accompanied by a moderately relativistic disc
wind that may provide additional collimation for the jet (McKinney
2005b,2006b). We note that the larger the radius of the progenitor
star and/or the denser the stellar envelope, the more energy is re-
quired for the jet to have to penetrate the stellar envelope and reach
Figure 2. Idealized model studied in this paper. The thick solid lines in
the upper panel show an azimuthal cut through a compact star surrounded
by a razor-thin disc. The star and the disc are threaded by magnetic field
lines, which are shown as thin solid lines. The magnetized plasma above
the star and the disc is assumed to be perfectly conducting and to have
an ultrahigh magnetization parameter. Arrows show the direction of the
poloidal electric current. The thick-dashed line indicates the field line that
separates the jet from the disc wind. The disc wind provides pressure support
for the jet and plays the role of the gaseous stellar envelope in Fig. 1.
The degree of pressure support is adjusted by varying the magnetic field
strength profile in the disc. The lower panel shows the angular frequency
of rotation of field lines as a function of the cylindrical radius of their foot-
points.
parameter σ (Michel 1969; Goldreich & Julian 1970), we assume
σ → ∞. In this idealized model, the force-free disc wind plays
the role of the stellar envelope (plus any gaseous disc wind) that
collimates the jet in a real GRB (Fig. 1).
In the context of the collapsar picture, the ‘wind’ region of our
idealized model can be considered as a freely moving pressure
collapsar
jet punctures stellar
envelope → GRB along jet
axis (beaming)
GRB followed by isotropic
explosion: superluminous
supernovae (type Ic SNe)
Lorentz factor
MacFadyen 2001; Woosley & Bloom 2006
γ ≫ 1
Eiso
jet
∼ 1050 − 1054 erg
Relativistic jet w/:
central engine operation ~ tfreefall
jet breakout ~ seconds Bromberg+2015
∴ duration > few seconds
Long GRBs light curve
~0-102 s ≳102 s
Prompt Afterglow
GRB Cartoon Picture
Meszaros & Rees 2014
γ-rays
radio
optical
X-rays
Long GRBs light curve
~0-102 s ≳102 s
Prompt Afterglow
GRB Cartoon Picture
Meszaros & Rees 2014
γ-rays
radio
optical
X-rays
Flux
Prompt emission
γ, X-rays
Afterglow
radio, optical, X-rays
Relativistic jet, nonthermal
Blast wave decelerating
into ISM
jet break:
opening angle,
energetics
based on Van
Eerten 2018
Long GRBs light curve
~0-102 s ≳102 s
Prompt Afterglow
GRB Cartoon Picture
Meszaros & Rees 2014
γ-rays
radio
optical
X-rays
Flux
Prompt emission
γ, X-rays
Afterglow
radio, optical, X-rays
Relativistic jet, nonthermal
Blast wave decelerating
into ISM
jet break:
opening angle,
energetics
based on Van
Eerten 2018
Mergers of binary neutron stars: Short GRBs
NS
NS
NS
BH
or
Paczynski 1986; Eichler et al. 1989; Narayan et al. 1992
time
Mergers of binary neutron stars: Short GRBs
NS
NS
Paczynski 1986; Eichler et al. 1989; Narayan et al. 1992
time
GWs
orbit decays due to
GW emission
Mergers of binary neutron stars: Short GRBs
NS
NS
Paczynski 1986; Eichler et al. 1989; Narayan et al. 1992
time
neutron rich, magnetized
accreting torus
conditions for jet
production ✔
GWs
orbit decays due to
GW emission
duration ~ ms
Rezzolla+2011
cf. also Ruiz+2016
Numerical relativity simulation of NS merger:
Short GRB emerges naturally
Rezzolla, Giacomazzo et al. 2011
Cactus/Carpet/Whisky codes
(solves Einstein eqs. + ideal MHD)
Initial condition:
•NS binary a few orbits before its
coalescence
•2 NSs
•each NS with M=1.5Msun
•Bmax=1012 G (each star)
Rezzolla+2011
cf. also Ruiz+2016
gas density magnetic fields
Rezzolla+2011
cf. also Ruiz+2016
gas density magnetic fields
Results in:
• accreting BH, M = 2.91 Msun
• short GRB jet, Δt = 30 ms
• opening angle 30 deg
• amplifies B to 1015 G
• Eiso = 1049 erg
fallback
material
GRB jet
(beamed)
Ejecta
(unbeamed)
fallback
material
GRB jet
(beamed)
Lattimer & Schramm 1974
produces many Earth-mass
amounts of precious metals
(r-process, lanthanides)
Ejecta
(unbeamed)
radio
optical
X-rays
γ-rays
kilonova:
IR
optical
UV
fallback
material
GRB jet
(beamed)
Lattimer & Schramm 1974
produces many Earth-mass
amounts of precious metals
(r-process, lanthanides)
Ejecta
(unbeamed)
radio
optical
X-rays
γ-rays
kilonova:
IR
optical
UV
Short GRB multimessenger
time series: GWs + light
Fernandez & Metzger 2016
nandez-Metzger ARI 4 May 2016 13:30
Event Signal Phase
Coalescence
X-ray/radio
precursor?
μ
Ω
r-process
ms magnetar?
Short GRB
X-ray extended
emission/plateau
Ye
> 0.25
Ye
< 0.25
Free n?
Shocked ISM
GW “chirp” GWs from remnant NS?
Inspiral Dynamical Accretion Remnant
BH
??
Blue
kilonova
??
Neutron
precursor
(UV)
Red
kilonova
Radio
transient
Seconds Milliseconds 10 ms 100 ms Minutes–hours Hours–days Days–weeks Month–years
Event Signal
Coalescence
X-ray/radio
precursor?
μ
Ω
r-process
ms magnetar?
Short GRB
X-ray extended
emission/plateau
Ye
> 0.25
Ye
< 0.25
Free n?
Shocked ISM
GW “chirp” GWs from remnant NS?
NS
BH
NS
??
Blue
kilonova
??
Neutron
precursor
(UV)
Red
kilonova
Radio
transient
Figure 1
Phases of a neutron star (NS) merger as a function of time, showing the associated observational signatures
and underlying physical phenomena. Abbreviations: BH, black hole; GRB, γ -ray burst; GW, gravitational
wave; ISM, interstellar medium; n, neutron; UV, ultraviolet; Ye
, electron fraction. Coalescence inset
courtesy of D. Price and S. Rosswog (see also Reference 15).
fallback
material
GRB jet
(beamed)
Lattimer & Schramm 1974
produces many Earth-mass
amounts of precious metals
(r-process, lanthanides)
Ejecta
(unbeamed)
radio
optical
X-rays
γ-rays
kilonova:
IR
optical
UV
Short GRB multimessenger
time series: GWs + light
Fernandez & Metzger 2016
nandez-Metzger ARI 4 May 2016 13:30
Event Signal Phase
Coalescence
X-ray/radio
precursor?
μ
Ω
r-process
ms magnetar?
Short GRB
X-ray extended
emission/plateau
Ye
> 0.25
Ye
< 0.25
Free n?
Shocked ISM
GW “chirp” GWs from remnant NS?
Inspiral Dynamical Accretion Remnant
BH
??
Blue
kilonova
??
Neutron
precursor
(UV)
Red
kilonova
Radio
transient
Seconds Milliseconds 10 ms 100 ms Minutes–hours Hours–days Days–weeks Month–years
Event Signal
Coalescence
X-ray/radio
precursor?
μ
Ω
r-process
ms magnetar?
Short GRB
X-ray extended
emission/plateau
Ye
> 0.25
Ye
< 0.25
Free n?
Shocked ISM
GW “chirp” GWs from remnant NS?
NS
BH
NS
??
Blue
kilonova
??
Neutron
precursor
(UV)
Red
kilonova
Radio
transient
Figure 1
Phases of a neutron star (NS) merger as a function of time, showing the associated observational signatures
and underlying physical phenomena. Abbreviations: BH, black hole; GRB, γ -ray burst; GW, gravitational
wave; ISM, interstellar medium; n, neutron; UV, ultraviolet; Ye
, electron fraction. Coalescence inset
courtesy of D. Price and S. Rosswog (see also Reference 15).
Birth of multimessenger astronomy: GWs
and EM radiation from GW170817
Birth of multimessenger astronomy: GWs
and EM radiation from GW170817
Kilonova opportunities for GMT
lighter elements
(lanthanide-poor)
heavier elements
(lanthanide-rich)
(UV)
(NIR)
cf. also Cowperthwaite+2017
Kilonova opportunities for GMT
lighter elements
(lanthanide-poor)
heavier elements
(lanthanide-rich)
(UV)
(NIR)
cf. also Cowperthwaite+2017
Jets from dead stars:
black hole binaries
cf. Sung-Chul Yoon’ talk
tomorrow
the galaxy and
h sites. In these
s of lower mass
he black hole.
igh number of
e to study their
not cover here.
s undergo tran-
y
i-
ht
n
o
se
n
n
st
ke
r-
s-
a
he
s-
ns
te
n
c,
r-
il
d
n-
n-
h
of
s-
mation of an outburst in the hardness-intensity
diagram (HID) is presented in the supplementary
materials (movie S1).
The rising phase of the outburst (A → B).
Sources in quiescence are rarely regularly moni-
tored, and so usually the first thing we know about
an outburst is an x-ray source rising rapidly in
luminosity, as detected by x-ray all-sky monitors.
implying an origin very close to the black hole, and
can in turn be used to estimate the spin of the black
hole. This is because of the innermost stable cir-
cular orbit (ISCO): Within this radius, matter can
no longer follow a circular orbit and will cross the
black hole event horizon on very short time scales
(milliseconds for a black hole of a few solar masses).
The size of the ISCO depends on the spin of the
black hole, ranging from 6 RG
(10)
for a nonrotating (Schwarzschild)
black hole to 1 RG
for a maximally
rotating (maximal Kerr) black hole.
Accurate measurements of the de-
gree of gravitational redshift affect-
ing the line can be used to infer how
close the line is to the black hole, and
from this the spin of the black hole
itself, although both observation and
modeling are complex. During the
hard state, characteristic time scales of
variability,calledquasi-periodicoscilla-
tions(QPOs),are also seen to decrease,
which may correspond to changing
viscosity or decreasing characteristic
radii in an evolving accretion disc.
In this state, sources are always ob-
served to also show relatively steady
radio emission at gigahertz radio fre-
quencies (11). This radio emission
(LR
) correlates in strength with the
x-ray emission (LX
) in a nonlinear
way: LX
º LR
b, where 0.6 < b < 0.7.
In recent years, it has become appar-
ent that a less radio-loud branch also
existsinthehardstate,whichmayhave
a steeper correlation (12), and yet
Disc wind
Jet
Stream-impact
point
X-ray
heating
Accretion
stream
Accretion
disc
Companion
star
Fig. 1. An artist’s impression of a low-mass BHXRB. The major components
of the binary, accretion flow, and outflows are indicated. The inclination and
relative masses of the binary components are based on estimates for the
system GX 339-4, a key source in our understanding of black hole accretion
and the source of the data presented in Fig. 2. [Image produced with BinSim
on October 26, 2012
www.sciencemag.org
ownloaded from
Rob Hynes
Black holes in binary systems
cf. work by Jack Steiner
the galaxy and
h sites. In these
s of lower mass
he black hole.
igh number of
e to study their
not cover here.
s undergo tran-
y
i-
ht
n
o
se
n
n
st
ke
r-
s-
a
he
s-
ns
te
n
c,
r-
il
d
n-
n-
h
of
s-
mation of an outburst in the hardness-intensity
diagram (HID) is presented in the supplementary
materials (movie S1).
The rising phase of the outburst (A → B).
Sources in quiescence are rarely regularly moni-
tored, and so usually the first thing we know about
an outburst is an x-ray source rising rapidly in
luminosity, as detected by x-ray all-sky monitors.
implying an origin very close to the black hole, and
can in turn be used to estimate the spin of the black
hole. This is because of the innermost stable cir-
cular orbit (ISCO): Within this radius, matter can
no longer follow a circular orbit and will cross the
black hole event horizon on very short time scales
(milliseconds for a black hole of a few solar masses).
The size of the ISCO depends on the spin of the
black hole, ranging from 6 RG
(10)
for a nonrotating (Schwarzschild)
black hole to 1 RG
for a maximally
rotating (maximal Kerr) black hole.
Accurate measurements of the de-
gree of gravitational redshift affect-
ing the line can be used to infer how
close the line is to the black hole, and
from this the spin of the black hole
itself, although both observation and
modeling are complex. During the
hard state, characteristic time scales of
variability,calledquasi-periodicoscilla-
tions(QPOs),are also seen to decrease,
which may correspond to changing
viscosity or decreasing characteristic
radii in an evolving accretion disc.
In this state, sources are always ob-
served to also show relatively steady
radio emission at gigahertz radio fre-
quencies (11). This radio emission
(LR
) correlates in strength with the
x-ray emission (LX
) in a nonlinear
way: LX
º LR
b, where 0.6 < b < 0.7.
In recent years, it has become appar-
ent that a less radio-loud branch also
existsinthehardstate,whichmayhave
a steeper correlation (12), and yet
Disc wind
Jet
Stream-impact
point
X-ray
heating
Accretion
stream
Accretion
disc
Companion
star
Fig. 1. An artist’s impression of a low-mass BHXRB. The major components
of the binary, accretion flow, and outflows are indicated. The inclination and
relative masses of the binary components are based on estimates for the
system GX 339-4, a key source in our understanding of black hole accretion
and the source of the data presented in Fig. 2. [Image produced with BinSim
on October 26, 2012
www.sciencemag.org
ownloaded from
Rob Hynes
Annu. Rev. Astro. Astrophys. 2006.44:49-92. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
by NASA Goddard Space Flight Center on 12/01/11. For personal use only.
Remillard & McClintock 2006
Black holes in binary systems
cf. work by Jack Steiner
thin disk
RIAF
jet
Thermal
state
Hard
state
Intermediate
state
18 C. Done et al.
Fig. 9 The left hand panel shows a selection of states taken from the 2005 outburst of GRO J1655-40.
GRO J1655-40
Done+2007
Black holes binaries show different states
Hardness-intensity diagram: evolution of a
black hole outburst
During this phase, the behavior of
the jet, revealed by infrared and radio
observations, also begins to change.
The infrared emission drops almost
as soon as the state transition begins
(14 ), indicating a change in the jet
properties(density andmagneticfield)
close to the black hole.
The radio emission begins to vary
more dramatically, showing oscilla-
tions and flare events superposed on
an overall decline (8 , 15 ). At a cer-
tain point, there are one or more large
radio flares, which can be two or more
orders of magnitude more luminous
than the previous existing, steadier jet
in the hard state. In several notable
cases, high-resolution radio observa-
tions after such flares have directly
resolved radio- or even x-ray–emitting
blobs moving away from the central
black hole (16 , 17 ), which can be
kinematically traced back to the time
hard transition, although also sho
ing a range of luminosities at which
can occur (even in the same sourc
generally occurs at a luminosity o
few percent of the Eddington lum
nosity (24 ). In fact, the soft state h
never been convincingly observ
in any BHXRB at luminosities b
low 1% Eddington. By the time t
source reaches the canonical ha
state again, with almost exactly t
same spectral and timing charact
istics as the initial hard state, the
has reappeared, and the accreti
disc wind is gone. Once in the ha
state, the source decline continu
typically below the detection lev
of all-sky or regular x-ray monitorin
and are observed only occasiona
until their next outburst. These qu
phases are not without interest, ho
ever, for it is during these perio
that—without the glare of the brig
X-ray spectrum
X-ray luminosity
SOFT HARD
A
B
C
D
E
F
Black Holes
Fender & Belloni 2012 Science
X-ray luminosity
During this phase, the behavior of
the jet, revealed by infrared and radio
observations, also begins to change.
hard transition, although also show-
ing a range of luminosities at which it
can occur (even in the same source),
X-ray spectrum
SOFT HARD
B
C
Black Holes
soft X-ray spectrum hard
During this phase, the behavior of
the jet, revealed by infrared and radio
observations, also begins to change.
The infrared emission drops almost
as soon as the state transition begins
(14 ), indicating a change in the jet
properties(density andmagneticfield)
close to the black hole.
The radio emission begins to vary
more dramatically, showing oscilla-
tions and flare events superposed on
an overall decline (8 , 15 ). At a cer-
tain point, there are one or more large
radio flares, which can be two or more
orders of magnitude more luminous
than the previous existing, steadier jet
in the hard state. In several notable
cases, high-resolution radio observa-
tions after such flares have directly
resolved radio- or even x-ray–emitting
blobs moving away from the central
black hole (16 , 17 ), which can be
kinematically traced back to the time
of the state transition. It has been re-
cently shown that in some cases, the
ejection is coincident in time with the
appearance of the strong QPOs (15 ).
The soft state (D → E). As the
spectral transition continues, these
strong QPOs disappear, and the over-
all level of x-ray variability drops as
hard transition, althou
ing a range of luminos
can occur (even in the
generally occurs at a
few percent of the E
nosity (24 ). In fact, th
never been convinci
in any BHXRB at lu
low 1% Eddington. B
source reaches the c
state again, with alm
same spectral and tim
istics as the initial ha
has reappeared, and
disc wind is gone. O
state, the source dec
typically below the d
of all-sky or regular x-
and are observed on
until their next outbur
phases are not withou
ever, for it is during
that—without the gla
accretion disc—resea
to accurately measure
tions of the compan
optical telescopes an
mate the mass of the
self (25 , 26 ).
These cycles of
clear changes in the w
X-ray spectrum
X-ray luminosity
SOFT HARD
A
B
C
D
E
F
Black Holes
GRS 1915+105
Similar to H-R diagram
State-changes in Δt ~ days
Hardness-intensity diagram: evolution of a
black hole outburst
During this phase, the behavior of
the jet, revealed by infrared and radio
observations, also begins to change.
The infrared emission drops almost
as soon as the state transition begins
(14 ), indicating a change in the jet
properties(density andmagneticfield)
close to the black hole.
The radio emission begins to vary
more dramatically, showing oscilla-
tions and flare events superposed on
an overall decline (8 , 15 ). At a cer-
tain point, there are one or more large
radio flares, which can be two or more
orders of magnitude more luminous
than the previous existing, steadier jet
in the hard state. In several notable
cases, high-resolution radio observa-
tions after such flares have directly
resolved radio- or even x-ray–emitting
blobs moving away from the central
black hole (16 , 17 ), which can be
kinematically traced back to the time
hard transition, although also sho
ing a range of luminosities at which
can occur (even in the same sourc
generally occurs at a luminosity o
few percent of the Eddington lum
nosity (24 ). In fact, the soft state h
never been convincingly observ
in any BHXRB at luminosities b
low 1% Eddington. By the time t
source reaches the canonical ha
state again, with almost exactly t
same spectral and timing charact
istics as the initial hard state, the
has reappeared, and the accreti
disc wind is gone. Once in the ha
state, the source decline continu
typically below the detection lev
of all-sky or regular x-ray monitorin
and are observed only occasiona
until their next outburst. These qu
phases are not without interest, ho
ever, for it is during these perio
that—without the glare of the brig
X-ray spectrum
X-ray luminosity
SOFT HARD
A
B
C
D
E
F
Black Holes
Fender & Belloni 2012 Science
X-ray luminosity
During this phase, the behavior of
the jet, revealed by infrared and radio
observations, also begins to change.
hard transition, although also show-
ing a range of luminosities at which it
can occur (even in the same source),
X-ray spectrum
SOFT HARD
B
C
Black Holes
soft X-ray spectrum hard
During this phase, the behavior of
the jet, revealed by infrared and radio
observations, also begins to change.
The infrared emission drops almost
as soon as the state transition begins
(14 ), indicating a change in the jet
properties(density andmagneticfield)
close to the black hole.
The radio emission begins to vary
more dramatically, showing oscilla-
tions and flare events superposed on
an overall decline (8 , 15 ). At a cer-
tain point, there are one or more large
radio flares, which can be two or more
orders of magnitude more luminous
than the previous existing, steadier jet
in the hard state. In several notable
cases, high-resolution radio observa-
tions after such flares have directly
resolved radio- or even x-ray–emitting
blobs moving away from the central
black hole (16 , 17 ), which can be
kinematically traced back to the time
of the state transition. It has been re-
cently shown that in some cases, the
ejection is coincident in time with the
appearance of the strong QPOs (15 ).
The soft state (D → E). As the
spectral transition continues, these
strong QPOs disappear, and the over-
all level of x-ray variability drops as
hard transition, althou
ing a range of luminos
can occur (even in the
generally occurs at a
few percent of the E
nosity (24 ). In fact, th
never been convinci
in any BHXRB at lu
low 1% Eddington. B
source reaches the c
state again, with alm
same spectral and tim
istics as the initial ha
has reappeared, and
disc wind is gone. O
state, the source dec
typically below the d
of all-sky or regular x-
and are observed on
until their next outbur
phases are not withou
ever, for it is during
that—without the gla
accretion disc—resea
to accurately measure
tions of the compan
optical telescopes an
mate the mass of the
self (25 , 26 ).
These cycles of
clear changes in the w
X-ray spectrum
X-ray luminosity
SOFT HARD
A
B
C
D
E
F
Black Holes
GRS 1915+105
low/hard XRB
low-luminosity
AGNs, Sgr A*
N+06; N+14
Hardness-intensity diagram: evolution of a
black hole outburst
During this phase, the behavior of
the jet, revealed by infrared and radio
observations, also begins to change.
The infrared emission drops almost
as soon as the state transition begins
(14 ), indicating a change in the jet
properties(density andmagneticfield)
close to the black hole.
The radio emission begins to vary
more dramatically, showing oscilla-
tions and flare events superposed on
an overall decline (8 , 15 ). At a cer-
tain point, there are one or more large
radio flares, which can be two or more
orders of magnitude more luminous
than the previous existing, steadier jet
in the hard state. In several notable
cases, high-resolution radio observa-
tions after such flares have directly
resolved radio- or even x-ray–emitting
blobs moving away from the central
black hole (16 , 17 ), which can be
kinematically traced back to the time
hard transition, although also sho
ing a range of luminosities at which
can occur (even in the same sourc
generally occurs at a luminosity o
few percent of the Eddington lum
nosity (24 ). In fact, the soft state h
never been convincingly observ
in any BHXRB at luminosities b
low 1% Eddington. By the time t
source reaches the canonical ha
state again, with almost exactly t
same spectral and timing charact
istics as the initial hard state, the
has reappeared, and the accreti
disc wind is gone. Once in the ha
state, the source decline continu
typically below the detection lev
of all-sky or regular x-ray monitorin
and are observed only occasiona
until their next outburst. These qu
phases are not without interest, ho
ever, for it is during these perio
that—without the glare of the brig
X-ray spectrum
X-ray luminosity
SOFT HARD
A
B
C
D
E
F
Black Holes
Fender & Belloni 2012 Science
X-ray luminosity
During this phase, the behavior of
the jet, revealed by infrared and radio
observations, also begins to change.
hard transition, although also show-
ing a range of luminosities at which it
can occur (even in the same source),
X-ray spectrum
SOFT HARD
B
C
Black Holes
soft X-ray spectrum hard
During this phase, the behavior of
the jet, revealed by infrared and radio
observations, also begins to change.
The infrared emission drops almost
as soon as the state transition begins
(14 ), indicating a change in the jet
properties(density andmagneticfield)
close to the black hole.
The radio emission begins to vary
more dramatically, showing oscilla-
tions and flare events superposed on
an overall decline (8 , 15 ). At a cer-
tain point, there are one or more large
radio flares, which can be two or more
orders of magnitude more luminous
than the previous existing, steadier jet
in the hard state. In several notable
cases, high-resolution radio observa-
tions after such flares have directly
resolved radio- or even x-ray–emitting
blobs moving away from the central
black hole (16 , 17 ), which can be
kinematically traced back to the time
of the state transition. It has been re-
cently shown that in some cases, the
ejection is coincident in time with the
appearance of the strong QPOs (15 ).
The soft state (D → E). As the
spectral transition continues, these
strong QPOs disappear, and the over-
all level of x-ray variability drops as
hard transition, althou
ing a range of luminos
can occur (even in the
generally occurs at a
few percent of the E
nosity (24 ). In fact, th
never been convinci
in any BHXRB at lu
low 1% Eddington. B
source reaches the c
state again, with alm
same spectral and tim
istics as the initial ha
has reappeared, and
disc wind is gone. O
state, the source dec
typically below the d
of all-sky or regular x-
and are observed on
until their next outbur
phases are not withou
ever, for it is during
that—without the gla
accretion disc—resea
to accurately measure
tions of the compan
optical telescopes an
mate the mass of the
self (25 , 26 ).
These cycles of
clear changes in the w
X-ray spectrum
X-ray luminosity
SOFT HARD
A
B
C
D
E
F
Black Holes
GRS 1915+105
low/hard XRB
low-luminosity
AGNs, Sgr A*
N+06; N+14
Open question:
Nature of state transitions?
Jet-disk connection
Hardness-intensity diagram: evolution of a
black hole outburst
During this phase, the behavior of
the jet, revealed by infrared and radio
observations, also begins to change.
The infrared emission drops almost
as soon as the state transition begins
(14 ), indicating a change in the jet
properties(density andmagneticfield)
close to the black hole.
The radio emission begins to vary
more dramatically, showing oscilla-
tions and flare events superposed on
an overall decline (8 , 15 ). At a cer-
tain point, there are one or more large
radio flares, which can be two or more
orders of magnitude more luminous
than the previous existing, steadier jet
in the hard state. In several notable
cases, high-resolution radio observa-
tions after such flares have directly
resolved radio- or even x-ray–emitting
blobs moving away from the central
black hole (16 , 17 ), which can be
kinematically traced back to the time
hard transition, although also sho
ing a range of luminosities at which
can occur (even in the same sourc
generally occurs at a luminosity o
few percent of the Eddington lum
nosity (24 ). In fact, the soft state h
never been convincingly observ
in any BHXRB at luminosities b
low 1% Eddington. By the time t
source reaches the canonical ha
state again, with almost exactly t
same spectral and timing charact
istics as the initial hard state, the
has reappeared, and the accreti
disc wind is gone. Once in the ha
state, the source decline continu
typically below the detection lev
of all-sky or regular x-ray monitorin
and are observed only occasiona
until their next outburst. These qu
phases are not without interest, ho
ever, for it is during these perio
that—without the glare of the brig
X-ray spectrum
X-ray luminosity
SOFT HARD
A
B
C
D
E
F
Black Holes
Fender & Belloni 2012 Science
X-ray luminosity
During this phase, the behavior of
the jet, revealed by infrared and radio
observations, also begins to change.
hard transition, although also show-
ing a range of luminosities at which it
can occur (even in the same source),
X-ray spectrum
SOFT HARD
B
C
Black Holes
soft X-ray spectrum hard
During this phase, the behavior of
the jet, revealed by infrared and radio
observations, also begins to change.
The infrared emission drops almost
as soon as the state transition begins
(14 ), indicating a change in the jet
properties(density andmagneticfield)
close to the black hole.
The radio emission begins to vary
more dramatically, showing oscilla-
tions and flare events superposed on
an overall decline (8 , 15 ). At a cer-
tain point, there are one or more large
radio flares, which can be two or more
orders of magnitude more luminous
than the previous existing, steadier jet
in the hard state. In several notable
cases, high-resolution radio observa-
tions after such flares have directly
resolved radio- or even x-ray–emitting
blobs moving away from the central
black hole (16 , 17 ), which can be
kinematically traced back to the time
of the state transition. It has been re-
cently shown that in some cases, the
ejection is coincident in time with the
appearance of the strong QPOs (15 ).
The soft state (D → E). As the
spectral transition continues, these
strong QPOs disappear, and the over-
all level of x-ray variability drops as
hard transition, althou
ing a range of luminos
can occur (even in the
generally occurs at a
few percent of the E
nosity (24 ). In fact, th
never been convinci
in any BHXRB at lu
low 1% Eddington. B
source reaches the c
state again, with alm
same spectral and tim
istics as the initial ha
has reappeared, and
disc wind is gone. O
state, the source dec
typically below the d
of all-sky or regular x-
and are observed on
until their next outbur
phases are not withou
ever, for it is during
that—without the gla
accretion disc—resea
to accurately measure
tions of the compan
optical telescopes an
mate the mass of the
self (25 , 26 ).
These cycles of
clear changes in the w
X-ray spectrum
X-ray luminosity
SOFT HARD
A
B
C
D
E
F
Black Holes
GRS 1915+105
low/hard XRB
low-luminosity
AGNs, Sgr A*
N+06; N+14
Open question:
Nature of state transitions?
Jet-disk connection
Jet unification
Universal mechanism for energy dissipation and jet
production?
Mirabel &
Rodriguez
2002
Mirabel
log jet
power
(erg/s)
Black hole jets are scale-free: knowledge-
transfer from stellar to supermassive ones
Pre-Swift
Swift BAT
Fermi GBM/LAT
BL Lacs
FSRQs
log Lγ-rays (erg/s)
Nemmen+2012, Science
cf. also Merloni+2003;
Falcke+2004; McHardy+2006;
Ma+2014; Lamb+2017;
~10
MSun
10 8
-10 9
M
Sun
Ferm
i blazars
G
R
Bs
Summary: Jets from stellar deaths
Ingredients to produce relativistic jets:
(i) spinning black holes
(ii) extended magnetic fields
(iii) gas accretion
All of them in collapsars, NSNS mergers and BH binaries
long GRBs short GRBs μquasars
prospects
Jet SEDs in
low and very
high states
Rodrigo Nemmen
• Spec. and photometric z
• Afterglow monitoring
• Kilonova observations
Github
Twitter
Web
E-mail
Bitbucket
Facebook
Group
figshare
[email protected]
rodrigonemmen.com
@nemmen
rsnemmen
facebook.com/rodrigonemmen
nemmen
blackholegroup.org
bit.ly/2fax2cT
Directors cut
optical emission rises in≲1 day, then fades
with a rapid color evolution to the red
e spectra shown in Fig. 2 exhibit similarly
volution; 11 hours after the trigger the
m is blue and smooth, but it transitions
a few days to a redder spectrum with at
ne clear spectral bump near 9000 Å (12).
ptical spectra lack the numerous absorp-
atures typically seen in the spectra of or-
supernovae (10, 12).
ly every known class of astrophysical
nts is inconsistent with at least one of the
ng properties of SSS17a: the rise time of
urs, subsequent fading at ≳1 mag dayÀ1,
r difference in V- and H-band magnitudes
that transitions from À1:2 to þ3:6 mag
days, and the nearly featureless optical
at all epochs (10–12). Among previously
d events dominated by thermal continuum
n, the most similar class is rapidly evolving
ansients (21); however, these events have
agnitudes that are too luminous, typically
n star-forming galaxies, do not have the
ed color evolution, and do not fade as
as SSS17a (10). Nonthermal relativistic
s such as GRB afterglows can produce
fading transients but are not expected to
e the quasi-blackbody spectra that are
ed (Fig. 2) (12).
7a’s observational properties suggest a
nt progenitor system. Various types of
uration transients have been theorized
e from white dwarf or massive-star explo-
but none of these model predictions re-
SSS17a. For example, models of surface
ions on a white dwarf (22) could explain
10000
1042
1041
1040
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
Temperature (K)
Residual
Magnitude (+ offset)
Luminosity (erg s–1)
Rest-frame days from merger
0 5 10 15
0 5 10 15
0 5 10 15
0 5 10 15
12.5
15.0
17.5
20.0
22.5
25.0
27.5
30.0
32.5
35.0
1
0
–1
on January 2, 2018
http://science.sciencemag.org/
loaded from
Kilpatrick+2017, Science
Cowperthwaite+2017
Drout+2017, Science
Alexander (Sasha) Tchekhovskoy SPSAS-HighAstro ’17
Explaining Jet High-Energy Emission
Binary Merger GRB
merger
ejecta,
wind
Core collapse GRB
stellar
envelope
R
AGN
interstellar
medium
kpc
Magnetic reconnection is promising (Sironi+2015)
but how to get it to work generically in a smooth jet?
Universal mechanism to convert 10-50% of jet energy into heat?
(Panaitescu and Kumar 03, Nemmen+2013)
Slide: Tchekhovskoy
Ultrarelativistic magnetodynamic GRB jets 553
Figure 1. Cartoon of the large-scale structure of a GRB source (not to
scale). The major elements are a central engine which launches a polar
magnetically dominated ultrarelativistic jet, and a gaseous stellar envelope
(grey shading) which confines the jet. The central engine may be an accreting
rapidly rotating BH or a millisecond magnetar. For a failed supernova, there
could also be a disc wind which may additionally confine the jet.
within the pre-supernova core (Aloy et al. 2000; Zhang et al. 2003;
Morsony, Lazzati & Begelman 2007; Wang, Abel & Zhang 2007).
These simulations show that the jet collimates and accelerates as
it pushes its way through the confining stellar envelope, thus sug-
gesting that the envelope plays a crucial role in determining the
opening angle and Lorentz factor of the flow that emerges from the
Figure 2. Idealized model studied in this paper. The thick solid lines in
the upper panel show an azimuthal cut through a compact star surrounded
by a razor-thin disc. The star and the disc are threaded by magnetic field
lines, which are shown as thin solid lines. The magnetized plasma above
the star and the disc is assumed to be perfectly conducting and to have
an ultrahigh magnetization parameter. Arrows show the direction of the
poloidal electric current. The thick-dashed line indicates the field line that
separates the jet from the disc wind. The disc wind provides pressure support
for the jet and plays the role of the gaseous stellar envelope in Fig. 1.
The degree of pressure support is adjusted by varying the magnetic field
strength profile in the disc. The lower panel shows the angular frequency
of rotation of field lines as a function of the cylindrical radius of their foot-
points.
Ultrarelativistic magnetodynamic G
Figure 1. Cartoon of the large-scale structure of a GRB source (not to
scale). The major elements are a central engine which launches a polar
magnetically dominated ultrarelativistic jet, and a gaseous stellar envelope
(grey shading) which confines the jet. The central engine may be an accreting
rapidly rotating BH or a millisecond magnetar. For a failed supernova, there
could also be a disc wind which may additionally confine the jet.
within the pre-supernova core (Aloy et al. 2000; Zhang et al. 2003;
Morsony, Lazzati & Begelman 2007; Wang, Abel & Zhang 2007).
These simulations show that the jet collimates and accelerates as
it pushes its way through the confining stellar envelope, thus sug-
gesting that the envelope plays a crucial role in determining the
opening angle and Lorentz factor of the flow that emerges from the
Figure 2. Idealized model studied in this paper. Th
the upper panel show an azimuthal cut through a co
by a razor-thin disc. The star and the disc are thread
lines, which are shown as thin solid lines. The mag
the star and the disc is assumed to be perfectly co
an ultrahigh magnetization parameter. Arrows show
poloidal electric current. The thick-dashed line indic
separates the jet from the disc wind. The disc wind pro
for the jet and plays the role of the gaseous stellar
The degree of pressure support is adjusted by varyi
strength profile in the disc. The lower panel shows t
of rotation of field lines as a function of the cylindrica
points.
Figure 1. Cartoon of the large-scale structure of a GRB source (not to
scale). The major elements are a central engine which launches a polar
magnetically dominated ultrarelativistic jet, and a gaseous stellar envelope
(grey shading) which confines the jet. The central engine may be an accreting
rapidly rotating BH or a millisecond magnetar. For a failed supernova, there
could also be a disc wind which may additionally confine the jet.
within the pre-supernova core (Aloy et al. 2000; Zhang et al. 2003;
Morsony, Lazzati & Begelman 2007; Wang, Abel & Zhang 2007).
These simulations show that the jet collimates and accelerates as
it pushes its way through the confining stellar envelope, thus sug-
gesting that the envelope plays a crucial role in determining the
opening angle and Lorentz factor of the flow that emerges from the
star. If the collapsar system forms an accreting BH, then the ultra-
relativistic jet may be accompanied by a moderately relativistic disc
wind that may provide additional collimation for the jet (McKinney
2005b,2006b). We note that the larger the radius of the progenitor
star and/or the denser the stellar envelope, the more energy is re-
quired for the jet to have to penetrate the stellar envelope and reach
Figure 2. Idealized model studied in this paper. Th
the upper panel show an azimuthal cut through a co
by a razor-thin disc. The star and the disc are thread
lines, which are shown as thin solid lines. The mag
the star and the disc is assumed to be perfectly co
an ultrahigh magnetization parameter. Arrows show
poloidal electric current. The thick-dashed line indic
separates the jet from the disc wind. The disc wind pro
for the jet and plays the role of the gaseous stellar
The degree of pressure support is adjusted by varyi
strength profile in the disc. The lower panel shows t
of rotation of field lines as a function of the cylindrica
points.
parameter σ (Michel 1969; Goldreich & Julian
σ → ∞. In this idealized model, the force-fr
the role of the stellar envelope (plus any gase
collimates the jet in a real GRB (Fig. 1).
In the context of the collapsar picture, the ‘
idealized model can be considered as a freel
Figure 1. Cartoon of the large-scale structure of a GRB source (not to
scale). The major elements are a central engine which launches a polar
magnetically dominated ultrarelativistic jet, and a gaseous stellar envelope
(grey shading) which confines the jet. The central engine may be an accreting
rapidly rotating BH or a millisecond magnetar. For a failed supernova, there
could also be a disc wind which may additionally confine the jet.
within the pre-supernova core (Aloy et al. 2000; Zhang et al. 2003;
Morsony, Lazzati & Begelman 2007; Wang, Abel & Zhang 2007).
These simulations show that the jet collimates and accelerates as
it pushes its way through the confining stellar envelope, thus sug-
gesting that the envelope plays a crucial role in determining the
opening angle and Lorentz factor of the flow that emerges from the
star. If the collapsar system forms an accreting BH, then the ultra-
relativistic jet may be accompanied by a moderately relativistic disc
wind that may provide additional collimation for the jet (McKinney
2005b,2006b). We note that the larger the radius of the progenitor
star and/or the denser the stellar envelope, the more energy is re-
quired for the jet to have to penetrate the stellar envelope and reach
Figure 2. Idealized model studied in this paper. The thick solid lines in
the upper panel show an azimuthal cut through a compact star surrounded
by a razor-thin disc. The star and the disc are threaded by magnetic field
lines, which are shown as thin solid lines. The magnetized plasma above
the star and the disc is assumed to be perfectly conducting and to have
an ultrahigh magnetization parameter. Arrows show the direction of the
poloidal electric current. The thick-dashed line indicates the field line that
separates the jet from the disc wind. The disc wind provides pressure support
for the jet and plays the role of the gaseous stellar envelope in Fig. 1.
The degree of pressure support is adjusted by varying the magnetic field
strength profile in the disc. The lower panel shows the angular frequency
of rotation of field lines as a function of the cylindrical radius of their foot-
points.
parameter σ (Michel 1969; Goldreich & Julian 1970), we assume
σ → ∞. In this idealized model, the force-free disc wind plays
the role of the stellar envelope (plus any gaseous disc wind) that
collimates the jet in a real GRB (Fig. 1).
In the context of the collapsar picture, the ‘wind’ region of our
idealized model can be considered as a freely moving pressure
Long
GRB
Tchekhovskoy+08
AGN
Similar ingredients for jet launching and collimation in
GRBs and AGNs: expect scaling of jet properties?
accretion
flow
(torus)
collapsar
˙
M . ˙
MEdd
˙
M ˙
MEdd
Semenov+04
Talks by Ioka,
Kawanaka, ...
˙
M ˙
MEdd
Short
GRB
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
Long
Short
Opening angle θ
j
(degrees)
Number
Figure 18
Distributions of jet opening angles for short (blue) and long (red ) GRBs on the basis of breaks in their
afterglow emission. Arrows mark lower or upper limits on the opening angles. The observations are
summarized in Section 8.4. From Fong et al. (2013) and references therein.
. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
s on 06/05/14. For personal use only.
Berger 2014 ARAA
Van Eerten 2018
slide: optical opportunities for GMT
afterglow measurements
what they can teach us
Log Optical Flux ->
Log Time ->
Most GRB Have Optical Afterglows
Prompt X/-ray light curves
bright (wide field instruments),
highly variable,
inhomogeneous shapes
LGRB typically ~ 40-100 s
OPT AG MEASUREMENTS
COMMON - Hundreds
observed, dozens per year.
(Flares ignored here)
Physics well understood to
be interaction of a jet with
ISM.
[Early or prompt phase not
measured for most GRBs]
Covino et al.: The prompt and the afterglow of GRB 060908 5
10-6
10-5
10-4
10-3
10-2
10-1
100
101
102
101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108
Flux (mJy)
Time from burst (s)
1 keV
U (x 100)
B (x 30)
V (x 10)
R (x 3)
I (x 1)
Z (x 0.4)
White (x 0.4)
J (x 0.06)
H (x 0.035)
K (x 0.02)
Covimo+2010
5.1. The picture since Swift
Fig. 3. An overview of the various issues raised by GRB afterglow observations from 2004+, in
particular those by Swift XRT.
Since the launch of Swift, a complex picture of X-ray and optical afterglows has
emerged. To some extent, this picture can be described in terms of a canonical long
GRB afterglow light curve189–191 (see also Fig. 3, expanded from an illustration
in Ref. 192), although analysis of the Swift XRT sample shows that ‘canonical’
should be taken with a grain of salt193, 194 and that the measured temporal slopes
of the light curves span a wide range. After an initial flaring behaviour presumably
connected to the prompt emission, the light curve drops steeply until it reaches
a plateau value. The light curve then maintains this value for longer than was
Eerten 2018
Slide: Xue-Feng Wu
GRB optical jet breaks
Liang+2008
compar
Below
ity will
relation
This pre
BHCs,
(Kong
further
The i
is in g
RX; jet
%
RX; jet
%
Markof
electron
(2005).
to the e
YUAN & CUI
410
Yuan & Cui 2005
log ν [Hz]