Reading: Calculating a record-breaking 31.4 trillion digits of Archimedes’ constant on Google Cloud
(Journal Club at AIS Lab. on April 22, 2019)
Reading: “Pi in the sky: Calculating a record-breaking 31.4 trillion digits of Archimedes’ constant on Google Cloud”
digits of Archimedes’ constant on Google Cloud” Journal Club at AIS Lab. on April 22, 2019 Kento Aoyama, Ph.D Student Akiyama Laboratory, Dept. of Computer Science, Tokyo Institute of Technology
31.4 trillion decimal digits using "y-cruncher" which implementing the Chudnovsky formula • Compute instances provided by Google Cloud were used during 121 days calculation • Storage bandwidth is the most important • Error detection and checkpoint/restart functions are crucial for Pi computation
Iwao (@Yuryu) ◦ Pi record holder (31.4 trillion) ◦ Developer Advocate for Google Cloud Platform (2015~) ◦ M.Sc in Computer Science at University of Tsukuba (Prof. Tatebe Lab.) • Alexander J. Yee (@Mysticial) ◦ Author of “y-cruncher” (the program used for this computation) ◦ Software Developer at Citadel LLC (2016~) ◦ M.Sc in Computer Science at University of Illinois ◦ More details in (numberworld.org) 4
in the sky: Calculating a record-breaking 31.4 trillion digits of Archimedes’ constant on Google Cloud” (accessd: April 18, 2019) • Private Tech Blog (numberworld.org): ◦ ”Google Cloud Topples the Pi Record” (accessd: April 18, 2019) ◦ “y-cruncher - A Multi-Threaded Pi-Program” (accessd: April 18, 2019) • Developer Keynote (Google Cloud Next’19): ◦ Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=2971&v=W16iHlo2TuE (accessd: April 18, 2019) • F. Bellard, “Computation of 2700 billion decimal digits of Pi using a Desktop Computer Evaluation of the Chudnovsky series,” Computer (Long. Beach. Calif)., vol. 2010, pp. 1–11, 2010. 5
a few hundred digits, but that isn’t stopping anyone. • The complexity of Chudnovky's formula - a common algorithm for computing pi - is O(n (log n)^3): the time and resources necessary to calculate digits increase more rapidly than the digits themselves • Using Compute Engine, Google Cloud’s high-performance infrastructure as a service offering, has a number of benefits over using dedicated physical machines ◦ live migration feature lets your application continue running while Google takes care of the heavy lifting needed to keep our infrastructure up to date 7 From Google Cloud Blog
Service • First Pi record using SSD • First Pi record using AVX512 instruction set • First Pi record using network attached storage (NAS) • Second Pi record done with y-cruncher that has encountered/recovered from a silent hardware error • The computation racked up a total of 10 PB of file reads, 9 PB of file writes • The speed of this computation was 1/8 bottlenecked by the storage bandwidth 9 From numberworld.org
• It is developed by Alexander J. Yee (@Mysticial) • It has been used for 6 world Pi records (April 2019) • It can be downloaded from webpage ( http://www.numberworld.org/y-cruncher/ ) • It is closed source (few parts of code is available on GitHub with licenses) • It supports both Windows and Linux systems 11 From numberworld.org
to trillions of digits • Two algorithms are available for most constants: computation and verification • Multi-Threaded - Multi-threading can be used to fully utilize modern multi-core processors without significantly increasing memory usage • Vectorized - Able to fully utilize the SIMD capabilities for most processors (SSE, AVX, AVX512, etc...) • Swap Space - management for large computations that require more memory than there is available • Multi-Hard Drive - Multiple hard drives can be used for faster disk swapping • Semi-Fault Tolerant - Able to detect and correct for minor errors that may be caused by hardware instability or software bugs 12 From numberworld.org
as a C99 program. Now it is mostly C++11 with a tiny bit of C++14 • Intel SSE and AVX compiler intrinsics are heavily used • Some inline assembly is used • C++ template metaprogramming is used extensively to reduce code duplication 13 Libraries and Dependencies: • WinAPI (Windows Only) • POSIX (Linux Only) • Cilk Plus • Thread Building Blocks (TBB) y-cruncher has no other non-system dependencies. No Boost. No GMP. From numberworld.org
constant: computation and verification List of available constants (see more detail in numberworld.org/Formulas and Algorithms) ◦ Square Root of n and Golden Ratio ◦ e - the Napier's constant ◦ Pi - the Archimedes’ constant ◦ ArcCoth(n) - Inverse Hyperbolic Cotangent ◦ Log(n) ◦ Zeta(3) - Apery's Constant ◦ Catalan's Constant ◦ Lemniscate ◦ Euler-Mascheroni Constant 14
= 545140134, C = 640320 Every iteration in the n loop, the generated Pi digits is increased by 14 digits. “It was evaluated with the binary splitting algorithm. The asymptotic running time is O( M(n) log(n)^2 ) for a n limb result. It is worst than the asymptotic running time of the Arithmetic-Geometric Mean algorithms of O(M(n) log(n)) , but it has better locality and many improvements can reduce its constant factor.” [b] 15 [b] F. Bellard, “Computation of 2700 billion decimal digits of Pi using a Desktop Computer Evaluation of the Chudnovsky series,” Computer (Long. Beach. Calif)., vol. 2010, pp. 1–11, 2010. [a] D. V. Chudnovsky and G. V. Chudnovsky, “Approximations and complex multiplication according to Ramanujan, in Ramanujan Revisited,” Academic Press Inc., Boston, p. 375-396 & p. 468-472, 1988.
define the auxiliary integers 16 F. Bellard, “Computation of 2700 billion decimal digits of Pi using a Desktop Computer Evaluation of the Chudnovsky series,” Computer (Long. Beach. Calif)., vol. 2010, pp. 1–11, 2010.
evaluated recursively with the following relations defined with m such as n 1 < m < n 2 : 17 F. Bellard, “Computation of 2700 billion decimal digits of Pi using a Desktop Computer Evaluation of the Chudnovsky series,” Computer (Long. Beach. Calif)., vol. 2010, pp. 1–11, 2010.
relations. 18 For the Chudnovsky series we can take: We get then F. Bellard, “Computation of 2700 billion decimal digits of Pi using a Desktop Computer Evaluation of the Chudnovsky series,” Computer (Long. Beach. Calif)., vol. 2010, pp. 1–11, 2010.
factors can be precomputed separately, it can reduce the calculations by using reasonable additional memory • Multi-threading Different parts of the binary splitting recursion can be executed in different threads • Restartability If operands are stored on disk, each step of computation is implemented so that it is restartable. • Fast multiplication algorithm using DFT 19 Because the "y-cruncher" is closed-source and not published ... Let's refer to the Bellard’s paper which implements the same formula. F. Bellard, “Computation of 2700 billion decimal digits of Pi using a Desktop Computer Evaluation of the Chudnovsky series,” Computer (Long. Beach. Calif)., vol. 2010, pp. 1–11, 2010.
node. • It was the biggest virtual machine type available on Compute Engine that provided Intel Skylake processors at the beginning of the project • The Skylake generation of Intel processors supports AVX-512, which are 512-bit SIMD extensions - that can perform floating point operations on 512-bit data or eight double-precision floating-point numbers at once 22 From Google Cloud Blog
ensure sufficient bandwidth between the computing node and the storage: • the network egress bandwidth and Persistent Disk throughput are determined by the number of vCPU cores • We used the iSCSI protocol to remotely attach Persistent Disks to add additional capacity • The number of nodes were decided based on y-cruncher's disk benchmark performance Currently, each Compute Engine virtual machine can mount up to 64 TB of Persistent Disks. 23 From Google Cloud Blog
2019 31.4 trillion Emma Haruka Iwao 12% November 2016 22.4 trillion Peter Trueb 22% October 2014 13.3 trillion Sandon Van Ness "houkouonchi" 36% December 2013 12.1 trillion Shigeru Kondo 37% October 2011 10 trillion Shigeru Kondo ~77% August 2010 5 trillion Shigeru Kondo 35.89% CPU Utilizations of Pi records (latest 6) From numberworld.org
CPU < RAM/memory < DISK/storage • Memory speeds are 1.5 - 3x slower than is ideal for y-cruncher • Storage speeds are 3 - 20x slower than is ideal for y-cruncher 26 From Wikipedia.org, numberworld.org
disk/storage bandwidth was about 2-3 GB/s, which led to an average CPU utilization of 12.2%. ( = about an 1/8 bottleneck) • If we have infinite storage bandwidth: ◦ The computation would have taken 2 ~ 3 weeks (122 * 1/8) • If we have infinite computational power: ◦ The computation would still have taken around 4 month 27 From numberworld.org
NAS (Network Attached Storage) ◦ “network storage bandwidth” is the limitation factor • For more details: ◦ “Write bandwidth” was artificially capped to about 1.8 GB/s by the platform ◦ “Read bandwidth”, while not artificially capped, was still limited to about 3.1 GB/s by the network hardware • But, put it simply, 2-3 GB/s is not enough ◦ Computation is effectively free: computational improvements by both of software and hardware ▪ AVX512. Skylake architecture, etc. ◦ GPUs aren't going to help with this kind of storage bottleneck (so there is no GPU versions) 28 From numberworld.org
GB/s of storage bandwidth for the case in high-end server ◦ 20 GB/s is less than 2 x PCIe 3.0 x 16 slots, it’s technically possible ◦ but it requires a level of hardware customization that we have yet to see • if we had 20 GB/s of storage bandwidth, the computation would likely have taken less than 1 month • Thus in the current era, whoever has the biggest and fastest storage (without sacrificing reliability) will win the race for the most digits of Pi 29 From numberworld.org
time that y-cruncher has been used to set the Pi record. It is the 4th time that featured at least one hardware error, and the 2nd that had a suspected silent hardware error. Hardware errors are a thing - even on server grade hardware.” 30 From numberworld.org
problem • The machine crashes, reboot it and resume the computation. • Circuit breaker trips, turn it back on and resume the computation. • Hard drive fails, restore from backup and resume the computation… This is (mostly) a solved problem thanks to checkpoint-restart. 31 From numberworld.org
they are silent and do not cause a visible error • they lead to data corruption which can propagate to the end of a long computation resulting in the wrong digits ◦ This is the worst scenario because you end up wasting a many-months long computation and have no idea whether the error was a hardware fault or a software bug ... 32 From numberworld.org
that catch errors as soon as possible to minimize the amount of wasted resources as well as minimizing the probability that a computation finishes with the wrong results • Error-detection saved the 2nd and 4th of hardware error from the bad ending. (in previous records) 33 From numberworld.org
90 % coverage • Empirical evidence from: actual (unintended) hardware errors, artificially induced errors by means of overclocking • Meaning that 1 in 10 silent hardware errors will go undetected and lead the computation finishing with the wrong digits • The two errors that have happened so far were both lucky to land in that 90%. ◦ The current 10% without coverage is the long tail of code that is either very difficult to do error-detection, or would incur an unacceptably large performance overhead 34 From numberworld.org
invests a large amount of time and money into a large computation. The digits don't pass verification. 2. The person contacts me asking for help. But I can't do anything. All that investment is lost. 3. Lot of distress on both sides. Maybe lots of finger-pointing. For this reason, I typically discourage people from running computations that may take longer than 6 months. y-cruncher is currently 6/6 in world record Pi attempts that have run to completion. But there is some amount of luck to this. 35 From numberworld.org
user choose a parallel computing framework (None, C++11 std::async(), Thread Spawn, Windows Thread Pool, Push Pool, Cilk Plus, Thread Building Block) For this computation, we decided to use Intel's Thread Building Blocks (TBB). But it turned out that TBB suffers severe load-balancing issues under y-cruncher's workload. By comparison both Intel's own Cilk Plus and y-cruncher's Push Pool had no such problems. The result was a loss of computational performance. In the end, this didn't matter since the disk bottleneck easily absorbed any amount of computational inefficiency. 37 From numberworld.org
• The were performance issues with live migration due to the memory-intensiveness of the computation (The 1.4 TB of memory would have been completely overwritten roughly once every ~10 min. for much of the entire computation) • There were timeout issues with accessing the external storage nodes 38 From numberworld.org
trillion decimal digits using "y-cruncher" which implementing the Chudnovsky formula • Compute instances (1 fat-compute node with 24 storage-node) provided by Google Cloud were used during 121 days calculation • Storage bandwidth is the most important: as the limitation factor of computation performance is the bandwidth of network attached storage so that the average CPU utilization was 12% • Error detection and checkpoint/restart functions are crucial for the current long-time-running Pi computation but it is still not perfect (coverage as about 90%) ◦ Sometimes silent hardware errors may be not undetected, or uncorrected
“y-cruncher” as a conventional software with conventional methods, so that there is less novelty in term of the HPC field • On the other hands, in term of the reliability of the long-time-running mathematical calculation (or SRE challenge; Site Reliability Engineering), it’s a good tech report • As a ads of Google Cloud and Pi day celebration: a great contribution • It is a good thing to extend the Pi digits (“Pi digit is a measurement of civilization”)
and uniform memory, the isoefficiency function is estimated to be Θ(p2). This means that every time you double the # of processors, the computation size would need to be 4x larger to achieve the same parallel efficiency.” “The Θ(p2) heuristically comes from a non-recursive Bailey's 4-step FFT algorithm using a sqrt(N) reduction factor. In both of the FFT stages, there are only sqrt(N) independent FFTs. Therefore, the parallelism cannot exceed sqrt(N) for a computation of size N.” 44
memory program and is not optimized for non-uniform memory (NUMA) systems. So historically, y-cruncher's performance and scalability has always been very poor on NUMA systems. While the scaling is still ok on dual-socket systems, it all goes downhill once you put y-cruncher on anything that is extremely heavily NUMA. (such as quad-socket Opteron systems)” “While y-cruncher is not "NUMA optimized", it has been "NUMA aware" since v0.7.3 with the addition of node-interleaving memory allocators.” 45
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