neither increase nor decrease the probability of a behaviour being repeated. •Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that increase the chance of a behaviour being repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative. •Punishers: Responses from the environment that decrease the chance of a behaviour being repeated. Punishment tends to weaken behaviour.
unpredictable number of times. •The rat presses the lever and it MIGHT get food •For this type of reinforcement it was found that •Response rate was FAST •Extinction rate was SLOW (very hard to extinguish because of unpredictability) •Can you think of examples of this in real life?
was studying learning behaviour in monkeys • A simple mechanic puzzle was devised Pink, D. H. (2011). Drive: The surprising truth about what motivates us. Penguin.
taught the monkeys how to solve the puzzle • Nobody had rewarded them for doing it • This was counter to what accepted notions of behaviour at the time •It wasn’t undertaken for biological reasons and it wasn’t related to rewards and punishment Pink, D. H. (2011). Drive: The surprising truth about what motivates us. Penguin.
drive - the performance of the task provided an intrinsic reward • The monkeys solved the puzzle because they found it gratifying to solve puzzles • The joy of the task was its own reward Pink, D. H. (2011). Drive: The surprising truth about what motivates us. Penguin.
with a theory that if the monkeys were rewarded with raisins for solving puzzles - they they’d no doubt perform even better • Harlow found that the monkeys actually made more errors and solved the puzzles less frequently after the food was introduced • The reward served to disrupt performance Pink, D. H. (2011). Drive: The surprising truth about what motivates us. Penguin.
when this phenomenon was again investigated with humans • Edward Deci undertook a study with university students in 1969 involving completing Soma Puzzles over three days Pink, D. H. (2011). Drive: The surprising truth about what motivates us. Penguin.
Pink, D. H. (2011). Drive: The surprising truth about what motivates us. Penguin. Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Group A No reward Reward No Reward Group B No reward No reward No reward
told them to do whatever they wanted, he watched them to see whether they continued solving puzzles, or did something else • On the first day, both groups continued playing with the puzzle for ~3.5-4 minutes • On the second day, when the first group was paid, they got really interested in solving puzzles when left alone • On the third day, when the first group was unpaid again, they spent significantly less time playing with the puzzle when left alone Pink, D. H. (2011). Drive: The surprising truth about what motivates us. Penguin.
used as an external reward for some activity, the subjects lose intrinsic interest for the activity” • What also was interesting was that Group B on the third day actually played with the puzzle for a little longer than they had in previous sessions • Maybe they were becoming more engaged? At least the same as previous days. Pink, D. H. (2011). Drive: The surprising truth about what motivates us. Penguin.
or enjoyment in the task itself • Intrinsic motivation exists within the individual, rather than relying on external pressures or a desire for reward Extrinsic Intrinsic
tend to be driven by a need to grow and gain fulfilment • It proposes three psychological needs that if satisfied, allow for optimal function and growth as human beings • Autonomy, Competency, Relatedness http://www.selfdeterminationtheory.org/theory/ Self-Determination Theory
most volitional and high quality forms of motivation and engagement for activities • Can you think of an activity which supports these three things well? Self-Determination Theory
time Intrinsica!y rewarding Nakamura, J., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2009). Flow theory and research. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 195-206). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Nakamura, J., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2009). Flow theory and research. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 195-206). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
demand much creative thinking then rewards can provide a small motivational boost without the harmful side effects •“Rewards do not undermine people’s intrinsic motivation for dull tasks because there is little or no intrinsic motivation to be undermined.” Deci, Ryan and Koestner When to use rewards Pink, D. H. (2011). Drive: The surprising truth about what motivates us. Penguin.
or answering boring emails then you could attempt to turn work into play •Increase the task’s variety •Use it to help master other skills •Make it more like a game When to use rewards Pink, D. H. (2011). Drive: The surprising truth about what motivates us. Penguin.
Pink discusses other ways to supplement the rewards •Offer a rationale for why the task is necessary (purpose) •Allow people to complete the task their own way (autonomy) When to use rewards Pink, D. H. (2011). Drive: The surprising truth about what motivates us. Penguin.
about what motivates us. Penguin. Is the task mostly routine? Can you increase the task’s challenge or variety, make it less routine, or connect it to a larger purpose? Concentrate on building a healthy, long-term motivationally environment that pays people fairly and that fosters autonomy, mastery, and purpose. Avoid “if-then” rewards in almost all circumstances. Consider unexpected, non contingent “now that” rewards. And remember that those rewards will be more effective if… Use rewards even “if-then” rewards but be sure to… 1. Offer a rationale for why the task is necessary 2. Acknowledge that the task is boring. 3. Allow people to complete the task their own way. 1. They offer praise and feedback rather than things people can touch or spend. 2. They provide useful information rather than an attempt to control. START HERE NO YES SURE. I CAN DO THAT. THAT’S PRETTY HARD
interest •Studying •Team Meetings •Identifying maintenance issues •Servicing equipment at wrong intervals •Staff not engaging with individual development plans Example problems
about reality • Peril #2: What is true of one person’s experiences may not be true for others Schell, J. (2014). The Art of Game Design: A book of lenses. CRC Press.
underlying a problem • Developed by Sakichi Toyoda, it was used within the Toyota Motor Corporation during the evolution of its manufacturing methodologies 5 Whys Seiter, C. (2014) The 5 Whys Process We Use to Understand the Root of Any Problem.
is dead • Why? The alternator is not functioning. • Why? The alternator belt has broken. • Why? The alternator belt was well beyond its useful service life and not replaced. • Why? The vehicle was not maintained according to the recommended service schedule. Example Seiter, C. (2014) The 5 Whys Process We Use to Understand the Root of Any Problem.
The key is to avoid assumptions • A broken process or alterable behaviour is indicative of reaching the root-cause level • The real root cause should point toward a process that is not working well or does not exist • A key phrase to keep in mind in any 5 Why exercise is "people do not fail, processes do". 5 Whys Seiter, C. (2014) The 5 Whys Process We Use to Understand the Root of Any Problem.
problem discussed earlier and use the 5 whys to get to a root cause. Tip! The real root cause should point toward a process that is not working well or does not exist.
design situations. • It operates under the principle that "People use Technologies to undertake Activities in Contexts". • When designing interactive systems, it’s important to understand how each of these elements varies and how they may affect one another.
this? Is it targeted at a specific group of people? What are they like? What characteristics do they share? Do they have physical, psychological or social differences? • Activity: What is the activity that the application is used for? How complex is the activity? How long does it take? Is it safety-critical? What is the nature of the content involved in the activity? (Private/Secure or Open/Public?)
occur? What is the physical environment like? Inside/ outside? What about the social context? Private/ public? And the organisational context? • Technology: What technology does it use? What type of input is required? What type of output What communication features are needed? What about the content?
discuss and list the kinds of games that you like to play, and what about them you enjoy. Tip! This isn’t limited to video games, it can include board games, card games, and sport.
world or that exist only in their dreams, test thoughts and desires in a safe and controlled environment – extends to fantasy, simulation and boundary breaking.
other styles of interaction or aesthetics you enjoy. Aesthetics include: Sensation, Fantasy, Narrative, Challenge, Fellowship, Discovery, Expression, Submission
important • Flexibility to choose hours and location and to spend time to do what they want • Personal growth • More demanding and complex than other employees • Social and fun workspace • Likely to jump from job to job Adapted from Beyond Creative Thinking
of game qualities picked out from various definitions. • Games are entered wilfully • Games have goals • Games have conflict • Games have rules • Games can be won and lost • Games are interactive • Games have challenge • Games can create their own internal value • Games engage players • Games are closed, formal systems Schell, J. (2014). The Art of Game Design: A book of lenses. CRC Press.
towards, to complete •Rules: A particular way to achieve the goal •Challenge/Conflict: From the combination of goals and rules •Feedback: To tell us how we well we are doing, or how close we are, to completing the goal
Nakamura, J., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2009). Flow theory and research. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 195-206). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Nakamura, J., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2009). Flow theory and research. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 195-206). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
while striving to achieve the game’s overall goal • This core action tends to remain the same throughout the game • It should be simple to explain (e.g., able to be written in a single sentence) • If it’s difficult to explain, it’s likely going to be difficult to design • Let’s explore some examples of core gameplay…
Nakamura, J., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2009). Flow theory and research. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 195-206). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
to gaming is that the computer relieves the players of the burden of personally implementing the rules. • This frees the players to become as deeply immersed in a video game as they can in other forms of entertainment. Adams, E. (2014). Fundamentals of game design. Pearson Education.
as they provide a way to sense behaviours without human intervention • However, some sensors may not be very reliable and could lead to inaccuracies or cheating • If activities cannot be successfully measured this way, then crowdsourcing or self-measuring options can be explored Adams, E. (2014). Fundamentals of game design. Pearson Education.
be a possibility • For example - sensing location • GPS is suitable except when indoors • QR code or barcode could be scanned instead • A photo of the location could be taken • Someone could be waiting at the location Adams, E. (2014). Fundamentals of game design. Pearson Education.
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