Soil Genesis

Transcript

1. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 1 EES 140 Soil Science Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 1. Weathering 2. Soil forming factors 3. Surficial geology 2 Outline
2. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 2 3 Breakdown of rocks and minerals Modifies or destroys physical and chemical characteristics Synthesizes new minerals 4
3. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 3 5 Weathering Granite, Acadia National Park Source: Acadia Magic Feldspar and Quartz Silicon Aluminum Oxygen Potassium Calcium Silicon Oxygen 1. Igneous 2. Sedimentary 3. Metamorphic 6 Types of rocks
4. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 4 7 Igneous Rocks Yosemite National Park National Park Service Acadia National Park National Park Service Mount Rainier National Park National Park Service 8 Arches National Park National Park Service Mars NASA Zion National Park National Park Service Sedimentary Rocks
5. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 5 Metamorphic Rocks 9 Grand Canyon National Park National Park Service Pemaquid Point, Maine Grand Canyon National Park National Park Service 10 The rock cycle (web link)
6. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 6 Oxides Igneous rocks Shales Sandstones Limestones SiO 2 59.07 58.90 78.64 5.20 Al 2 O 3 15.22 15.63 4.77 0.81 Fe 2 O 3 3.10 4.07 1.08 0.54 MgO 3.45 2.47 1.17 7.92 FeO 3.71 2.48 0.32 .. CaO 5.10 3.15 5.51 42.74 Na 2 O 3.71 1.32 0.45 0.05 K 2 O 3.11 3.28 1.32 0.33 O 2 .. 2.67 5.03 41.70 P 2 O 5 0.30 0.17 .08 0.04 MnO 0.11 .. .. .. TiO 3 1.03 0.66 0.25 0.06 H 2 O 1.30 3.72 1.33 0.56 Misc. 0.79 1.48 0.07 0.05 Percentage Chemical Composition of Rocks 11 1. Physical disintegration 2. Chemical decomposition (biogeochemical weathering) 12 Types of weathering
7. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 7 Frost wedging 13 Freeze-thaw Rocks containing clay Wet = expansion Dry = shrinking 14 Wetting and Drying Desiccation of clay Source: European Geosciences Union
8. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 8 15 Heating and Cooling Exfoliation at Shuteye Peak Source: The Earth Story 16 Grinding, Abrasion Wind abrasion, Arches National Park Source: National Park Service Water abrasion Source: About Geology
9. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 9 17 Living Organisms Weathering for Students 5Fe2 O3 + 9H2 O → Fe10 O15 ·9H2 O Hematite Ferrihydrite 18 Hydration
10. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 10 4KAlSi3 O8 + 4H+ + 2H2 O ⇌ Al4 Si4 O10 (OH)8 + 4K+ + 8SiO2 Feldspar Kaolinite Dissolved Silica primary mineral secondary mineral 19 Hydrolysis 4FeO + O2 + 2H2 O ⇌ 4FeOOH Fe(II) oxide Fe(III) oxyhydroxide Wüstite Goethite 20 Oxidation-reduction oxidation oxidation state increases electrons lost oxidation state decreases electrons gained reduction
11. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 11 Oxidized iron – Fe (III) 21 Redoximorphic Features Reduced iron – Fe (II) gleyed features 22 Redoximorphic Features Redox mottles
12. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 12 NaCl + H2 O ⇌ Na+ + Cl- + H2 O Halite 23 Dissolution Example: dissolution of calcite (limestone, marble) 1. Carbonic acid H2 CO3 + CaCO3 ⇌ Ca+2 + 2HCO3 - 2. Sulfuric acid, H2 SO4 3. Nitric acid, HNO3 24 Acid Weathering Formation of carbonic acid CO2 + H2 O ⇌ H2 CO3
13. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 13 25 Acid Weathering 26 Declines in acid deposition Data and maps from the National Atmospheric Deposition Program
14. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 14 27 Physical and chemical weathering are simultaneous and complementary. Horizonation  Horizon types  Horizon thickness Eluviation Illuviation  Fe, Al  Clay Development of structure 28
15. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 15 Horizonation  Horizon types  Horizon thickness Eluviation Illuviation  Fe, Al  Clay Development of structure 29 Images: University of Idaho Horizonation  Horizon types  Horizon thickness Eluviation Illuviation  Fe, Al  Clay Development of structure 30 Images: University of Idaho
16. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 16 Horizonation  Horizon types  Horizon thickness Eluviation Illuviation  Fe, Al  Clay Development of structure 31 Images: NRCS 32 Image: Andrew Friedland
17. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 17 1. Parent material 2. Climate 3. Topography 4. Biology 5. Time 34 State Factors Hans Jenny’s state equation S = f(cl, o, r, p, t, …)
18. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 18 Organic and inorganic parent materials 35 Low decomposition rates Water saturation 36 Organic Parent Material Formation of a woody peat bog
19. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 19 Residual Parent Materials Transported Parent Materials 37 Inorganic Parent Material Residual Parent Material 1. New England glaciated metamorphic rock 3. Appalachians sedimentary rock 18. Sierra Nevada igneous rock 19. Pacific Coast sedimentary rock 13. Great Plains sedimentary rock 38
20. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 20 39 1. Temperature 2. Precipitation 40
21. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 21 Influences the rate of chemical reactions Influences biology Temperature 41 Q10 temperature coefficient rate of change of chemical or biological system due to an increase of 10°C van’t Hoff temperature law For every rise in temperature by 10°C, the rate of a chemical reaction increases 2-3x. Effective precipitation  Depth of weathering Water table and chemical reactions Decomposition of SOM Precipitation 42
22. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 22 Rainwater contributes to acidity: 1. production of H+ ions 2. removal of non-acid cations 43 Precipitation and acidity 44 (Taiga)
23. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 23 45 Soil profiles: University of Idaho 46
24. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 24 47 wet + cold organic matter? organic matter? water saturation mineral weathering? mineral weathering? gleying? Soil profiles: NRCS, Michigan State University 48 wet + hot highly weathered Soil profile: University of Idaho
25. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 25 49 dry + hot some weathering erosion? precipitation of salts Soil profile: University of Idaho 50 Air vs. soil temperature Air Soil (O horizon) Soil (B horizon, 25 cm) Data from the Bear Brook Watershed in Maine
26. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 26 51 Effect of snowpack Soil under snowpack Soil with snowpack removed Air Data from Tatariw and Patel, at the Dwight DeMerritt Forest 52 Effect of snowpack Soil under snowpack Vernal transition Air Snow melts Meltwater available in spring Soil with snowpack removed What happens if there is no/less snow accumulation?
27. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 27 1. Plants 2. Microbes 3. Macroinvertebrates 4. Higher animals 5. Humans 53 Vegetation 54 Flickr, Gordon Robertson Forest floor litter Holland Havercamp Erosion prevention
28. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 28 Vegetation 55 Depth of OM accumulation Type of OM inputs Type of horizon Vegetation Zone of eluviation 56
29. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 29 Vegetation Accumulation of Ca salts 57 Solubilization, downward movement Ca salts removed More acidic, More leaching Vegetation Thickness of O horizon Litter type Rate of decomposition 58 Temperature and canopy cover Microbial community weathering Organic acids eluviation
30. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 30 Vegetation Calcium in top layers Litter content weathering pH 59 Vegetation Calcium in lower layers Root uptake pH weathering 60
31. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 31 Vegetation Soil images: Bear Brook Watershed in Maine (BBWM) 61 thickness degree of decomposition thickness Animals Eastern Mole Kenneth Catania, Vanderbilt University 62 Prairie Dog Aaron Siirila burrowing aeration weathering? pedoturbation depth of weathering? erosion?
32. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 32 Animals Earthworm burrow NRCS 63 Earthworm Rob Hille Microbes 64 Lichens US Forest Service weathering Modern Farmer
33. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 33 Microbes 65 weathering? Decomposition of OM Image: Modern Farmer Microbes 66 weathering? atmospheric N2 organic N N fixation inorganic N (NH4 +, NO3 -) vegetation pH changes weathering?
34. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 34 Human activity 67 Clearcut, Sumatra World Wildlife Fund Erosion during the Dust Bowl USDA-ARS Humans + Climate 68 Measuring soil erosion World Wildlife Fund
35. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 35 1. Elevation 2. Slope 3. Aspect 69 70 Elevation Temperature decreases
36. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 36 71 Elevation Precipitation increases 72 Elevation Warm, moist air Cool air, low pressure Precipitation (orographic rainfall) Dry air Rainshadow zone
37. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 37 73 Slope 3% slope 45% slope How do you measure slope? 74 Slope 3% slope 45% slope Weathering? erosion deposition Fresh parent material
38. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 38 75 Slope Aspect Image: avalanche.org Weathering? drier why? 76 Slope Aspect Image: avalanche.org More organic matter accumulation Weathering? why?
39. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 39 77 Slope Aspect Image: avalanche.org Different vegetation types? 78 Nutrients leached Nutrients accumulate
40. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 40 79 More acidic Less acidic 80 Less water retention More water retention Water saturation possible Weathering? Weathering?
41. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 41 81 More erosion Less erosion Weathering? pedogenesis? 82 gley clay clay
42. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 42 83 Soil profiles: NRCS, University of Idaho 84 Topography and soil color DRAINAGE WAY TOE-SLOPE FOOT-SLOPE SHOULDER SUMMIT Source: Soil Science Society of America
43. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 43 85 The Catena DRAINAGE WAY TOE-SLOPE FOOT-SLOPE SHOULDER SUMMIT Source: Soil Science Society of America 86
44. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 44 87 slate bedrock solum glacial advance from the northwest gravel & cobbles dense basal till substratum organic mat Schlitz and Grisi, 1980. Soil-site relationships of spruce-fir stands on the Chesuncook Catena soils 88
45. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 45 89 90 Lichens and mosses Weathering accelerated Accumulation of dust, OM Time zero
46. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 46 91 Grasses, shrubs Greater accumulation of OM Formation of A horizon 92 Forest succession begins Accumulation of litter Formation of distinct O horizon Thickening of A horizon Eluviation of Fe, clay Formation of distinct E horizon Fe, clay accumulate in deeper layers B horizon begins to form Well-formed Bt horizon continued accumulation
47. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 47 93 Grasses Accumulation of OM Formation of A horizon Bk horizon continued accumulation Accumulation of carbonates Bw horizon Accumulation of clay Bt horizon Carbonates dissolved by organic acids, transported deeper 94 Erosion and pedogenesis?
48. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 48 95 Weathering and nutrient status? 96 Glaciated vs. non-glaciated soils Weathering begins when glacier retreats age?
49. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 49 97 Glaciated vs. non-glaciated soils Weathering begins when glacier retreats age? 98 Glaciated vs. non-glaciated soils Michigan Idaho Puerto Rico Hawaii
50. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 50 Mobility of ions Ca+2 > Na+ > Mg+2 > K+ > Si+4 > Fe+3 > Al+3 99 Why are weathered soils red? negligible mobility under normal soil pH mobilized by organic acids Hawaii 100 Why are weathered soils red? Puerto Rico hot and humid climate chemical weathering leaching of nutrients OM decomposition thin O horizon Fe+3 retention
51. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 51 101 1. Additions 2. Losses 3. Translocations 4. Transformations
52. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 52 Additions Accumulation of organic matter Wind-borne (eolian) additions (e.g. dust) Rain-borne additions (e.g. N) Human/animal additions (e.g. manure) Losses Surface erosion Evaporation (water loss) Microbial decomposition (loss of OM, nutrients) Grazing (loss of OM, nutrients) Leaching and drainage (loss of water, nutrients)
53. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 53 Translocations Eluviation, illuviation Fauna-mediated translocations (e.g. OM) Capillary action (salts) Transformations Physical weathering Chemical weathering Microbial decomposition of OM
54. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 54 107 108 Biome shift vegetation OM Soil nutrients Soil pH Microbes Image: Grimm et al., 2013
55. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 55 109 Streamflow increase flooding Water saturation erosion Image: Grimm et al., 2013 110 Wildfire Forest mortality Erosion Vegetation change Temperature Moisture Erosion Image: Grimm et al., 2013
56. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 56 111 Temperate mixed forests Temperate grasslands Temperate mixed forests Tundra and alpine Temperate mixed forests No-analog communities Biome shifts Image: Grimm et al., 2013
57. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 57 113 Moving fresh water Rivers and streams 114 Alluvium Journal
58. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 58 Sorting Stratification 115 Features of water-transported sediment Alluvium Journal Sorting Stratification 116 Features of water-transported sediment Sediment deposition depends on size of particles
59. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 59 Sorting Stratification 117 Features of water-transported sediment sand deposited silt deposited clay deposited direction of water flow ***Particle size in the image is not representative of sand, silt, clay Sorting Stratification 118 Features of water-transported sediment Sediment deposition depends on size of particles and velocity of flowing water fast flow slow flow Materials transported greater distances Materials transported shorter distances
60. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 60 Sorting Stratification 119 Features of water-transported sediment Sediment deposition depends on size of particles and velocity of flowing water Sorting Stratification 120 Features of water-transported sediment Varves AGU Blogosphere
61. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 61 Extremely fertile Nutrient transport Replenishment of material 121 Brazil The Nature Conservancy 122 8. Mississippi floodplain and delta 16. Great Basin 21. California central valley Alluvial deposits
62. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 62 Periodic inundation 123 Floodplains 124 Floodplains
63. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 63 125 Floodplains Mississippi River floodplain 126 Alluvial Fans Badwater, Death Valley, CA National Park Service Fars province, southern Iran USGS, NASA
64. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 64 127 Alluvial Fans Badwater, Death Valley, CA National Park Service Indiana University 128 Deltas Nile delta, Egypt NASA Mississippi delta NASA
65. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 65 129 Deltas Mississippi delta NASA 130 Features of moving water (videos) Why do rivers curve? Why do rivers have deltas?
66. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 66 131 132
67. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 67 133 Dunes Great Sand Dunes National Park National Park Service Deserts Beaches 134 Dunes
68. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 68 Stabilization by vegetation High permeability Quartz, sea salts 135 Dunes: soil 136 Lithified dunes Navajo Sandstone, Zion National Park National Park Service
69. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 69 137 Loess Vicksburg, Mississippi Loess Plateau, China Smaller particles (silt) Carried long distances by wind Found near rivers and deserts – dry surfaces 138 Loess
70. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 70 1. Glacial loess Mississippi 2. Non-glacial loess China 139 Loess Fertile, nutrient-rich Small size = rapid weathering Water retention Aeration Penetration by roots 140 Loess soils
71. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 71 141 Zion National Park National Park Service Radford University 142
72. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 72 143 Marine submergence 144 The glacial conveyor belt
73. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 73 145 Surficial Geology Handbook for Southern Maine 146 Daggett Rock, Phillips ME 100 ft long 8,000 tons Maine Geological Survey
74. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 74 147 1. Sorting 2. Stratification Neither = Till Both = Outwash 148 Glacial Features
75. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 75 149 Glacial till Basal Till (Lodgement Till) Ablation Till 150 Glacial till heterogeneous and unsorted
76. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 76 151 Glacial outwash Outwash plain in Iceland NASA 152 Moraine Terminal moraine NASA
77. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 77 153 Eskers water transported = sorting 154 Glacio-lacustrine Lake Columbia, Washington John Clague fine sediment stratification
78. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 78 155 Glacio-marine fine sediment stratification Maine Geological Survey 156 What kind of parent material would you find at the top of a mountain in Maine? How would glacial action and slope aspect interact in Maine?
79. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 79 157 Loamy soils Stratification of sands, silts Bedrock is > 60 inches below mineral soil surface Loamy or clayey soils No surface stones/ boulders Poorly drained Basal till 20 inches below mineral soil surface Thin soils Hills till glaciomarine sediment alluvium 158 Ondawa Series alluvial soil stratification Soils of Maine (Maine Association of Professional Soil Scientists)
80. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 80 159 Scantic Series Typic Epiaquept Lamoine Series Aeric Epiaquept fine textured soils effect of drainage on color Soils of Maine (Maine Association of Professional Soil Scientists) 160 Spodosol Beals Island Soils of Maine (Maine Association of Professional Soil Scientists)
81. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 81 161 Histosol Stevens Island 42” of organic material granite bedrock at 42” Soils of Maine (Maine Association of Professional Soil Scientists) 162 Wonsqueak Series very poorly drained soil in marshes and swamps Soils of Maine (Maine Association of Professional Soil Scientists)
82. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 82 163 Monson Series glacial till Soils of Maine (Maine Association of Professional Soil Scientists) 164 Brayton Series poorly drained soil in lodgement till in lower landscape positions Colonel Series somewhat poorly drained soil in lodgement till Soils of Maine (Maine Association of Professional Soil Scientists)
83. EES 140: Spring 2017 Kaizad F. Patel 83 165 Images: University of Idaho, Michigan State University SOIL GENESIS